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i 




FORGING 



OF 



IEON AND STEEL 



A TEXT BOOK FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS 

IN COLLEGES, SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

AND THE SHOP 



BY 

WILLIAM ALLYN RICHARDS, B.S. in M.E. 

PRINCIPAL OF THE GRANT VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL 

CEDAR RAPIDS, IOWA 

FORMERLY SUPERVISOR, MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL, ROCKFORD, ILL. 

AND INSTRUCTOR IN FORGE, FOUNDRY, AND MACHINE PRACTICE 

IN THE UNIVERSITY HIGH SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY 

OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 



387 ILLUSTRATIONS 




NEW YORK 

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 

25 Park Place 

1915 



^ 






COPYRIGHT, I9IS, BY 
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 



#•/"* 






OCT -4 1915 
©CU411767 



PREFACE 

In the preparation of this book, the author has en- 
deavored to treat the forging of iron and steel, and the 
hardening and tempering of tool steel, simply enough 
for the High School boy and at the same time thor- 
oughly and systematically enough for the veteran smith. 
A chapter has been introduced on the history of for- 
ging since it is thought to be of interest to all engaged 
in the work of forging metals. Another chapter on the 
manufacture of Iron and Steel has been inserted because 
it is believed that the workman should have some knowl- 
edge of the metals, and how they are obtained. It is 
not thought necessary or advisable to go deeply into 
the subject of metallurgy, or to introduce metallurgical 
theory. 

No attempt to treat specific exercises has been made; 
the aim has been to bring out principles. All the methods 
used toward this end have been thoroughly tried out dur- 
ing ten years of experience in teaching and supervising 
Manual Training. Those wishing a course of study by 
which to work, or to use in outlining such a plan, will 
find in the Appendix a course of study which the author 
has tried out successfully with several hundred pupils in 
high school, and with students in college. 

In order to obtain the best information possible, the 
author has consulted nearly every book published on the 
subject. He has found much of value in the following: 
The American Steel Worker, by E. R. Markham; Prac- 
tical Blacksmithing , by M. T. Richardson; A Text Book 



iv PREFACE 

of Elementary Metallurgy, by Arthur H. Heorns; Metal- 
lurgy of Iron and Steel, by Bradley Stoughton; Notes 
on Iron, Steel and Alloys, by Forrest R. Jones; A Hand- 
book of Art Smithing, by Franz Sales Meyer; The 
Smithy and Forge, by W. J. E. Crane; Smith's Work, 
by Paul N. Hasluck; Forging, by John Lord Bacon. 
Acknowledgment is here made of the use of these and 

other publications. 

W. A. R. 
February 15, 1915 



CONTENTS 

Introduction. — Forging, Drawing out, Upsetting, Shaping, 
Bending, Punching, Welding, Hardening, Annealing, 
Brazing 1 

CHAPTER I 

Historic Use of Iron and Steel. — Early Period (Egyptian, 
Grecian, Roman), Architectural and Domestic Uses, 
Romanesque Period, Gothic Period, German Work, 
Baroque Period, Rococo Period, Deterioration of Art 
Iron Work 4 

CHAPTER II 

Iron and Steel. — Cast Iron, Pig Iron, Steel, Wrought Iron, 
Harmful Impurities, Hot Short, Red Short, Cold Short, 
Fuel and Fluxes, Ores (Magnetite, Red Hematite, Brown 
Hematite), Calcining or Roast. Reduction and Refining 
of Ores (Blast Furnaces, Wrought Iron, Dry Puddling, 
Wet Puddling, Mild Steel, Open Hearth Process, Sieman's 
Regenerative Furnace, Sieman's-Martin, Bessemer Steel). 
Ingot Molds, Tool or Crucible Steel, Rolling Mill. Ques- 
tions for Review 16 

CHAPTER III 

Equipment. — General Tools (Forges, Blowers, Bellows, 
Anvil, Power Shears, Swage Block, Mandrel, Bench, 
Vice, Drill Press). Hand Tools (Hammer, Sledge, 
Tongs, Chisels, Punches, Set Hammer, Flatter, Swage, 
Fuller, Hardie, Miscellaneous) 34 

CHAPTER IV 

Fuel and Fires. — Fuel, Tests, Charcoal, Fire, Plain Open 
Fire, Side Banked Fire, Hollow Fire. Questions for 
Review 50 



vi CONTENTS 

CHAPTER V 

Drawing Down and Upsetting. — Position at the Anvil, 
Sledge, Drawing Down to a Square Bar, to Round, 
Upsetting. Questions for Review 56 

CHAPTER VI 

Bending and Twisting. — Flat Bend, Bending to U, Ring 
Bending, Eye Bending, Hook, Edge Bend, Bending 
Plates, Twisting. Questions for Review 68 

CHAPTER VII 

Splitting, Punching and Riveting. — Splitting with a Cold 
Chisel, Splitting with a Saw, Splitting with a Hot Chisel, 
Punching, Hand Punches, Riveting. Questions for 
Review 77 

CHAPTER VIII 

The Uses of Blacksmiths' Tools. — Fullering, Swages, Swage 
Blocks, Operations, Flatter, Set Hammer, Heading Tool, 
Floor Heading Tool. Questions for Review 84 

CHAPTER IX 

Welding. — Welding, Procedure, Hammer Refining, Fluxes, 
Cases of Welding (Lap Weld, Chain Link, Collar, 
Washer), Two Piece Welding (Bolt Head, Split Welds, 
Butt Weld, Jump Weld, Angle Weld, Tee Weld), Scarfing 
Steel, Welding Steel to Iron, Welding Steel. Questions 
for Review 91 

CHAPTER X 

Electric, Autogenous and Thermit Welding. — Arc Welding, 
Resistance Welding, Butt Welding, Lap Welding, Spot 
Welding, Point Welding, Ridge Welding, T, L and X 
Welding, Chain Welding. Autogenous Welding, High 
Pressure System, Low Pressure System, Oxyacetylene 
Building-Up, Oxyacetylene Cutting. Thermit Welding 
by Fusion, Thermit Welding by Plasticity. Thermit 
Welding of Castings, Thermit Strengthening of Castings. 
Welding with Liquid Fuel. Questions for Review 108 



CONTENTS vii 

CHAPTER XI 

Brazing. — Hard Soldering, Principles of Brazing, Flux, 
Spelter, Preparing Pieces, Cleaning, Methods of Fitting, 
Heating, Brazing Furnaces, Gasoline Torch, Blowpipe, 
Hot Tongs, Brazing by Immersion, Cast Iron, Questions 
for Review 121 

CHAPTER XII 

Tool Steel. — Temper, Point, Furnacqs, Lead Bath, Cyanide 
Bath, Uniformally Heating, Gas Torch, Bunsen Burner, 
Heating Bath, Location of the Furnace, Heating Tool 
Steel, Drawing Temper, Rules for Heating, Reheating, 
Annealing, Don'ts for Annealing, Graphic Representation 
of Changes in Carbon Steel, Hardening Baths (Brine, Oils, 
Acids), Flowing Water, Tempering Colors, Methods of 
Hardening, Case One (Diamond Point, Side Tool, etc.), 
Case Two (Taps, Drills, Reamers, Shank Milling Cutters, 
End Mills, T-Slotters, etc.), Hammer, Thread Cutting 
Dies, Spring Dies, Solid Dies, Counter Bore, Ring Gages, 
Press Dies, Tempering in Oil, Thin Articles, Springs, 
Pack Hardening, Case Hardening, Potassium Ferrocyanide 
Method, Charcoal Method, Straightening Bent Work. 
Questions for Review 127 

CHAPTER XIII 
High Speed Tool Steel. — The Working of High Speed Tool 
Steel, Annealing, Grinding, Hardening and Tempering, 
Specially Formed Tools. Questions for Review 155 

CHAPTER XIV 
Art Iron- Work. — Tools, Operations (Embossing, Spinning, 
Chasing, Etching), Methods of Joining (Wedge Folding), 
Twisting, Scroll, Spindle Shape Spiral, Interlacings, 
Leaves and Ornaments, General Procedure. Questions 
for Review 159 

CHAPTER XV 
Steam and Power Hammers. — Operation, Compressed Air, 
Foundations, Tools, Uses of Various Tools, Taper Work, 
Bending or Offsetting, Drawing Out, Upsetting, Press. 
Questions for Review' 168 



viii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XVI 

Calculations. — Case A (Chain Link, Arc of Circles, Square 
Bend), Case B (Weight of a Forging). Questions for 
Review 178 

APPENDIX 183 

INDEX 215 



FOKGING OF IRON AND 
STEEL 



INTRODUCTION 

Forging is the process of shaping hot iron or steel by 
means of a hand hammer, a power hammer, or a press. 

This process of shaping may involve any one or all of 
the following operations: 

1. Drawing out. 

2. Upsetting. 

3. Shaping. 

4. Bending. 

5. Punching, cutting and splitting. 

6. Welding. 

7. Hardening and tempering of steel. 

8. Annealing steel. 

9. Brazing. 

1. Drawing out consists of lengthening metal by blows 
from a hammer, by rolling it between rolls, or by press- 
ing it in a press usually operated by hydraulic power. 
The shape of the cross section of the metal may or may 
not be changed in the process. A square section may 
be made round, a round section made square or hex- 
agonal. 

2. Upsetting is the reverse of drawing out. It consists 
of shortening the length of the piece of metal and increas- 
ing the cross section by use of the hammer or press. 
What was said of the shape of the cross section under 
drawing out remains equally true in upsetting. 



2 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

3. Shaping or changing the cross section of the piece 
of metal is also accomplished by means of either the 
hammer or press. This operation usually combines the 
first two. 

4. Bending is done with the tools already mentioned. 
It is performed on any shaped piece of metal. Usually 
one side of the piece is stretched, while the other is com- 
pressed or upset. 

5. Punching, splitting and cutting are operations very 
similar to one another. Punching is making holes of 
any shape. They usually are round, square, or ellip- 
tical, and are made by driving a punch of the proper 
size and section through the metal by means of blows 
or pressure. Splitting and cutting are accomplished by 
driving a chisel through the metal; splitting is usually 
lengthwise of the piece, and cutting, crosswise, to sever 
the stock. 

6. Welding is the uniting by force of two or more 
pieces of metal, or the two ends of a single piece (bent 
so as to meet), while heated to such a high temperature 
that they are plastic, thus allowing their fibers to be 
joined together. This requires a nice and contempo- 
raneous adjustment of the heat in the parts to be 
welded. The surfaces must be clean. 

7. Hardening and tempering are performed on tool 
or crucible steel. Hardening is accomplished by the 
sudden cooling of steel that has been heated to a very 
definite temperature. 1 The degree of hardness depends 
upon the chemical content of the steel and the rapidity 
with which it is cooled. Tempering is the slightly soften- 
ing or toughening of a piece of hardened steel, by the 

1 Steel will harden at all temperatures above that of a very 
dull red; but there is one definite temperature that is correct. 
This correct temperature and its variation with different steels 
will be taken up in the text. 



INTRODUCTION 3 

process of again heating it to some certain temperature 
— usually determined by the color of the oxide the heat 
produces, — and cooling it to prevent further softening. 

8. Annealing is the softening of a piece of hardened 
steel by heating it to a definite temperature and then 
allowing it to cool slowly so that it can be worked with 
cutting tools or by other means. 

9. Brazing is the joining together of two or more 
pieces of metal by means of a brass spelter or one of 
silver. 

All of these operations require special heating, which 
processes must be learned. The work must be done 
rapidly while the metal is hot, and the operations must 
be stopped before the temperature has fallen too low. 
These matters, as well as how to hold the metal and 
the hammer, how to strike — whether lightly or heavily, 
rapidly or deliberately — and what particular tool to use, 
will be discussed in the chapters which follow. 



CHAPTER I 
HISTORIC USE OF IRON AND STEEL 

The working of iron and steel is unquestionably one 
of the oldest of arts. It is known that iron was pro- 
duced and used at a very early date, probably in pre- 
historic times. 

Early Uses: 

In the Bible (Gen. iv, 22) we read of Tubal-cain, son 
of Lamech and Zillah, as " an instructor of every 
artificer in brass and iron." 

We can properly call Tubal-cain and these early metal 
workers smiths, even though they sometimes worked in 
brass, as their principal work was the making of armor. 

We find abundant references to show that this earliest 
of trades was held to be highly important. In I Samuel 
xiii, 19, we find, "Now there was no smith found 
throughout all the land of Israel: for the Philistines 
said, Lest the Hebrews make them swords or spears;" 
and we find that Nebuchadnezzar followed the same 
course among the Jews (II Kings, xxiv, 14), "And he 
carried away all Jerusalem, and all the princes, and all 
the craftsmen and smiths; none remained, save the 
poorest sort of the people of the land." Jeremiah xxiv, 1, 
also states that Nebuchadnezzar carried away the car- 
penters and smiths. 

The extent to which the work of these early smiths 
was carried can be seen from the following references to 
the Old Testament: Axes, Deut. xix, 5; II Kings vi, 5; 
stonecutters' tools, Deut. xxvii, 5; armor, coats of 



HISTORIC USE OF IRON AND STEEL 



mail and weapons of war, I Samuel xvii, 7-38; iron 
bedsteads, Deut. iii, 11; iron pens, Ezek. iv, 3. We 
know little about the early smiths and their work, or 
their method of working the iron. An Egyptian wall 
painting (Fig. 1), probably gives as reliable an idea as 
can be found. 

The fire was built in a slightly depressed place in the 
ground; a forced draft was given to the fires by an at- 




r^U 




Fig. 1 

tendant on either side, who worked bellows which were 
placed on the ground in such a manner that they would 
blow the fire. The attendants worked these bellows by 
standing on them, alternately throwing their weight from 
one foot to the other and pulling up the bellows with a 
rope as the weight was relieved, thus permitting the 
instruments to be emptied and filled alternately. The 
little figure opposite the smith's head was probably for 
fuel or water. 

The use made of iron by the early Egyptians is a de- 
batable point, for some writers maintain that the Egyp- 
tians must have used it in war; while some claim that 
it was used merely as a precious metal. Egyptian speci- 
mens found in tombs and elsewhere are so few that the 
proof is slight. Recently discovered Egyptian iron finger 



6 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

rings and other articles of personal adornment imply 
that this metal was scarce and of great value. On the 
other hand, some of the articles unearthed are an iron- 
bladed adze with an ivory handle, a thin fragment of 
wrought iron plate found in an air passage of the Great 
Pyramid, and an iron blade of a falchion discovered 
under a Sphinx at Karnac. These articles imply that 
the metal was somewhat abundant. 

Herodotus, the Greek historian, thinks that iron was 
used generally by the Egyptians for weapons as early as 
the seventh century b.c. He believes this because 
when the Carians and Ionians invaded Egypt they were 
armed with brass and bronze weapons, and an Egyp- 
tian, who had never seen arms made of these alloys, ran 
to inform the king, Psammetichus, of the matter. In 
Egypt, very few iron weapons have been found, however, 
whereas many of brass and of bronze have been un- 
earthed. This may be explained, in part, by the fact 
that iron rusts more than brass or bronze and by the 
supposition that the brass and bronze weapons belonged 
to the invading armies. 

Iron was known in Assyria and Babylon also. Exca- 
vations have brought to light various articles, such as 
weapons, finger rings, bracelets, chains, hammers, knives 
and saws. An iron store, the contents of which weighed 
approximately 385 tons, identified as unwrought ingots, 
was found at Korsbad. These ingots are pointed at both 
ends, with a hole near one end, probably so that they 
might be strung together and more easily transported. 

Iron came into use early in Palestine and Phoenicia, 
also in China, Japan, Persia, and India. It is claimed 
by the Chinese that steel was invented about 2000 b.c. 
and that the Indian steel was known fully as early. 

The early Greeks and Romans were acquainted with 
iron, and with them, as with the Egyptians, the first 



HISTORIC USE OF IRON AND STEEL 7 

iron probably was of meteoric origin. That bronze was 
used before iron is recognized by Greek and Roman 
writers. Hesiod arid Homer, Greek poets, have written 
of bronze, iron and steel. Iron objects have been dis- 
interred at Troy and Mycene. The welding and solder- 
ing of iron is said to have been invented by Glaucos of 
Chios, about 600 b.c. Not only weapons of war were 
made of iron and steel but also crude farm implements. 
Iron was used also for ornamental vases and statues. 
At Delphi, a vessel of silver with a fancifully wrought 
iron base is described. Hercules is said to have had a 
helmet of steel and a sword of iron; and Saturn, a steel 
reaping hook. Diamachus wrote in the fourth century 
that different kinds of steel were then produced in 
various places. The best came from Chalybes and 
India, although steel from Lydia and Laconia was 
noted. Anvils, pincers, hammers and even the bellows 
pictured on Grecian vases are similar to those used 
now. 

The early history of the Romans tells us that they were 
familiar with this metal. Many iron articles have been 
found in Etruscan and in Roman graves at Pompeii, 
Vulci, and other places. In many instances, the utensils, 
weapons, and articles for use were of iron, while those 
for ornamentation were brass or bronze. It is probable 
that the early Romans obtained most of their iron from 
the island of Elba, but after acquiring the sovereignty 
of the world, they probably mined and manufactured 
iron in their provinces of Carinthia, Spain, and on the 
Rhine, where it is presumed that they found well-estab- 
lished industries. In brief, the Greeks and Romans knew 
iron and its use. They produced it in open hearths or 
ovens with the assistance of a natural wind draft or 
bellows, which sometimes produced a material similar to 
wrought iron and sometimes, steel. 



8 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

Architectural and Domestic Uses. — During about the 
tenth century, iron and smiths' work began to be put 
to architectural and domestic uses. As a rule, the 
hammer and anvil were the only tools used in producing 
the artistic specimens which have been handed down to 
us. We must also consider that the smith of this time 
had not rolled materials of every form and size which 
are now obtainable, but that each rod, wire or sheet 
had to be wrought by himself. We must admit that 
these modern conveniences have not added to the ar- 
tistic nature of the product of the smith, but rather 
have taken away from it. Not only did manual labor 
produce a better iron than do mechanical operations of 
the present time, but the outward appearances were 
more original and interesting than those of machine 
production, although the latter is without question more 
exact and neat in appearance. 

As machinery came into use, hours of labor shortened, 
and products cheapened, with the result that large objects 
could be produced as well as small ones. In early times 
the smith was compelled to confine most of his labors to 
small articles, but even when large pieces were under- 
taken the results were very remarkable. 

During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the work 
produced by the smith for architectural purposes ob- 
tained great importance. Herein the church also became 
interested and called for ornaments for doors and gate- 
ways, window fastenings, chests, and hanging candelabra. 
Hearth furniture, fire-dogs, wall anchors, and door- 
knockers were used in castles and other buildings. 

Romanesque Period. — The smiths' work of the Ro- 
manesque period presents very little beauty in external 
appearance, but by full and heavy forms it gives the 
impression of great stability. They followed the simple 
style of the architecture and the ornaments of the time. 



HISTORIC USE OF IRON AND STEEL 



9 




Fig. 2 



The richest work of this period was produced just before 
the transition to the Gothic period of Architecture, and 
is found in door fittings in which case the iron is spread 
over large flat surfaces. This was 
probably at first to hold the narrow 
boards together, but later to furnish 
the decoration. Thus we find the 
simple hinge of the first part of the 
period succeeded by scrolls spread- 
ing all over the door. Some charac- 
teristics of the Romanesque iron-work are the slit bars 
and the scrolled parts (Fig. 2), separate bars welded into 
complex ones and ornaments forged in swages. This 
work was all forged out of one whole piece of metal or 
if separate parts were forged they were welded together, 
so that screws and rivets were not used to hold the parts 

together. Bonds or ties, 
however, were used to 
some extent (Fig. 3). 

Gothic Period. — 
Many changes were 
noticed in the Gothic 
period. Instead of a 
forging out of one piece, 
or pieces forged and 
welded together, the work 
consisted of many sepa- 
rate forgings which were 
riveted to the principal 
parts. There was made 
a change in the leaves 
as the bars were flattened to thin sheets at the ends 
and cut to shape. Bending, stamping or embossing were 
also introduced, as were twisted bars. Several tools, 
such as graving tools, punches and chisels, were added 




10 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




Fig. 4 



to those already in use. The productions became richer 
and more elaborate, until Gothic art reached its height, 
when very elaborate articles were made, such as chande- 
liers, lanterns and iron fur- 
niture. Fancy keys (Fig. 4) 
were made and hung on a 
background of colored cloth 
or leather to bring out the 
effects. The credit of hav- 
ing made the first attempts to beautify iron with paint 
and at the same time to preserve it against rust is 
given to the middle ages. 

Renaissance Period. — Following the Gothic period is 
that of the Renaissance, although Gothic details were not 
rare up to the fifteenth century or even beyond it. In the 
southern countries of Europe, the wrought ironwork of this 
period was very simple in 
appearance, the ornamen- 
tation being flat and pro- 
duced by punching (Fig. 
5), but in the Northern 
countries greater richness 
was developed. During 
this period, the use of 
wrought iron greatly in- 
creased and many new 
articles were introduced, 
such as reading-desks, 
wash-stands, towel hold- 
ers, door grills, brackets, 
signs, weathercocks and 
utensils of the most 
varied kinds. 

It was during the renaissance that the production of 
weapons reached its perfection. Cast iron was also intro- 




Fig. 5 



HISTORIC USE OF IRON AND STEEL 11 

duced, although it was limited almost entirely to fire 
backs and stove plate. 

The master armorers of Augsburg, Nuremberg and 
Munich attained great fame at this time. The most 
costly suits of armor in the museums of Paris, Madrid 
and Vienna came from the forges of these cities. The 
designs were furnished by Schwarz, Hirschvogel, Miehich, 
Floetner, Aldegrever, Durer, Wohlgemuth and Holbein, 
the most distinguished artists of the time. These masters 
added engraving and etching to the earlier arts of em- 
bossing and encrusting armor with precious metals. Be- 
sides armor they made exquisite shields and sworcl-hilts, 
also domestic utensils, tools, instruments of torture, 
strong boxes, statuettes carved from the solid, and even 
a throne which was presented to Rudolph II by the 
Augsburgers in 1574. 

German Work. — German iron-work is particularly 
worthy of study, not only because it is beautiful; but 
also because it enjoyed a boundless prosperity without 
a break, from the thirteenth century until the invasion 
of the first Napoleon, except during the Thirty Years' 
War. This is exceptional because in Spain, France, Eng- 
land, Italy and the Low Countries, the working of iron 
ebbed and flowed according to the prosperity of the 
countries. Blacksmithing was practised from the Rhine 
to the limits of Austria and from Denmark to Italy, and 
the greatest variety of articles was produced. Little is 
known of the work of the early Teutons. The iron hinges 
and guards on the Romanesque doors, which have with- 
stood time, show a striking resemblance to the work of 
central France, while others are patterned after the more 
carefully designed swagework of Paris. 

Not until the thirteenth century did the German 
blacksmiths show independent design. At this time in 
Marburg, Magdeburg and other places they began using 



12 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



elegant, branching strapwork ending in peculiar fleur 
de lis and vine leaves, which, work was a German modi- 
fication of the French design. This breaking away from 
the French designs progressed during the next two cen- 
turies. The results were a distinct 
German design in which always 
appeared the vine, tracery, and 
fleur de lis. In Cologne, on the 
eve of the Renaissance, about two 
hundred years later, a new type of 
work appeared with the thistle as 
a base for the design (Fig. 6), origi- 
nated by a family of smiths named 
Matsys, which produced the cele- 
brated Antwerp well cover. The 
thistle combined with tracery was 
in vogue until displaced by Renais- 
sance ornament. 

Baroque Period. — In the " baro- 
que" period the striving after pomp 
and grandeur produced some very 
large pieces of elaborate work used 
mostly in the service of courts and 
princes. The term, baroque, is un- 
derstood to mean oval. In this 
particular style the spirals are squeezed together so as 
to form ovals, and also are ornamented with foliage 
(Fig. 7). As this style was used by the architects 
almost exclusively in the buildings of the Society of 
Jesus, it is often called the Jesuit style. 

Some of the changes from earlier periods are: Round 
bars gave place to square ones; bars that heretofore 
were threaded through each other were changed to halv- 
ing and oversetting; forgings were placed on sheet-iron 
backings (Fig. 8); leaves became bolder, and rosettes 




Fig. 6 



HISTORIC USE OF IRON AND STEEL 



13 



and acanthus husks were used in profusion. The styles 
for the large pieces were less uniform in appearance than 
during the Renaissance and earlier periods, since the 
efforts were spent on the prominent parts, and the less 




Fig- 7 

important places were left almost bare or filled with 
straight bars. The treatment of small articles was similar 
though less striking. The art of casting was becoming 
better known; therefore parts that were formerly made 
of wrought iron were made of other materials, and we find 
the smith's work diminishing. 

Rococo Period. — In the eighteenth century came a 
style known as the rococo. The word "rococo" is derived 
from "rocaille," which means grotto or shell work. The 




Fig. 8 

work of this period was very dainty and artistic. The 
strong heavy grilled windows of the earlier periods gradu- 
ally became less numerous, probably due to the fact that 
since the times were less dangerous than before, their use 



14 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

was unnecessary. Balustrades and balcony railings put 
in an appearance, as well as large iron gates for churches, 
palaces and parks. The demand for sign brackets and 
signs for guilds increased. Wrought iron gained more 
popularity in this line than ever before. The disappear- 
ance of straight lines is a particular feature of this 
period; they were used only when it was absolutely 
necessary. In place of these we find wild scrollwork. 
The acanthus similar to that once used in the Gothic 
was again brought out but the foliage was more crinkled. 




Fig. 9 

It was evident that the idea was to avoid flat surfaces 
and to put life into the work in a simple way. Festoons, 
sprays and garlands were put in every vacant or empty 
space (Fig. 9). 

Deterioration of Art Iron-work. — At the beginning of 
the reign of Louis XIV in France, the rococo designs 
had reached their height and the demand for artistic 
forgework took a turn backward to the more simple 
style. Grills were made of antique scrolls with inter- 
woven and flowery borders of small stiff design. Wreaths 
with many bows and ribbons were placed in elliptically 
shaped shields. This degeneration of art forgework con- 
tinued down to the first of the nineteenth century. 
Then for three-quarters of a century little attention was 
given to it. But, twenty or thirty years ago, in Germany 
and some other countries, considerable interest sprang up 
and work is now produced equal to that of any of the 
old smiths. It is characteristic of our time, due to the 



HISTORIC USE OF IRON AND STEEL 15 

machine-made tools, rivets and a large variety of rolled 
shapes. 

Transition. — While the work of the smith as a pro- 
ducer of art degenerated, the smith as a producer of tools 
for the shop and field improved, and now since the 
introduction of machinery that calls for hardened steel 
parts and for drop and pressed forgings, the smith with 
his knowledge of metals and how they should be heated 
has in the main passed to a work of far greater practi- 
cal value, though not so artistic 



CHAPTER II 
IRON AND STEEL 

The purpose of this chapter is briefly to explain the 
production of iron and steel and to point out some of 
their characteristics. It is thought best not to introduce 
a theoretical discussion of metallurgy. 

KINDS OF IRON 

Iron is an element. As used commercially, it is never 
entirely free from impurities, some of which have a use- 
ful influence and others a harmful one. The presence of 
useful impurities in the iron and the method of obtain- 
ing the metal from the ores gives rise to three general 
classes of iron: i.e., cast iron (pig iron), steel and 
wrought iron. 

There are two characteristics common to all of the 
above classes, i.e., all contain iron to the extent of 92% 
or more, and all contain the element carbon, as the next 
most important constituent. 

Pig Iron is the raw form of iron just as it comes from 
the blast furnace. Almost all iron and steel are reduced 
from the ore to the form of pig iron, and are then refined 
by various processes into the cast iron, steel or wrought 
iron. 

Cast Iron is the most impure form in which iron metal 
is used. It is weak and brittle; it cannot be heated and 
forged. To be shaped it must be melted and cast in 



IRON AND STEEL 17 

molds, or machined with cutting tools. The per cent of 
impurities in cast iron varies between wide limits as can 
be seen from the following table : 

Analyses of Cast Iron J 



G. C. 


C. C. 


T. C. 


Si. 


Mn. 


P. 


. S. 


2.73 


0.G6 


3.39 


2.42 


1.00 


0.31 


0.04 


2.83 


0.79 


3.58 


1.59 


0.79 


0.485 


0.08 






3.75 


0.85 


0.50 


0.45 


0.05 



Steel. — Steel is the name given to various compounds 
of iron and small quantities of carbon, silicon, manga- 
nese, sulphur, and phosphorus. It is purer and stronger 
than cast iron and can be shaped either by being melted 
and cast into molds or by being forged. 

Special steels contain, in addition to the impurities 
mentioned, definite proportions of chromium, tungsten, 
manganese, nickel, vanadium, and wolfram. In general, 
steel is classified according to its amount of carbon, as 
follows: soft steel, having less than 0.3%; medium 
steel, having from 0.3% to 0.75%; and hard steel, 
having from 0.75% to 1.50%. 

Wrought Iron. — Wrought iron is the purest com- 
mercial form of iron. It is similar to very low carbon 
steel, except that it is not produced by being melted 
and cast in molds, and that it is always forged to the 
desired shape. It rarely contains more than 0.12% of 
carbon. It is produced by the refining of pig iron by a 
process known as puddling. 

Harmful Impurities. — The impurities in iron and steel 
that are harmful are sulphur, arsenic, and phosphorus. 
Sulphur causes the metal under the hammer to crack or 

1 G. C. is Graphite Carbon, C. C. Combined Carbon, T. C. 
Total Carbon. The other terms have their regular chemical sig- 
nificance. 



18 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

crumble, when worked hot, while phosphorus causes it 
to crack or crumble when worked cold. 

Hot Short or Red Short. — When impurities, such as 
sulphur and arsenic, render the metal unworkable at a 
red heat, it is said to be red short,- and when unworkable 
at a welding heat it is hot short. 

Cold Short. — The phosphorus impurity will cause 
iron to crack when it is worked or hammered while cold. 
Iron in this condition is said to be cold short. 

FUEL — FLUXES AND ORES 

Iron is mined in the form of oxides or carbonates. All 
of these ores generally are mixed with earthy and other 
impurities in widely varying proportions, and must be re- 
duced by means of heat, thus making the use of various 
fuels and fluxes necessary. 

Fuels. — The fuels which are used for reducing iron 
ores are, chiefly, as follows: charcoal, anthracite, and 
coke. The purer these fuels are the better will be the 
iron produced, other things being equal. 

Fluxes. — A flux is a substance which is added to 
metalliferous bodies and unites with the foreign matter, 
to form a slag which is fusible. The flux to be employed 
will vary with the nature and amount of the impurities 
in the ore. Thus iron ores containing silicate of alumina 
need a flux of lime. Fluor spar is used as flux for sul- 
phates of barium, calcium, and strontium. 

Ores. — The ores which are used chiefly in the pro- 
duction of iron are the oxides of iron. They are here 
briefly described. 

Magnetite (Fe 3 4 ) when pure contains 72.41 % of iron. 
It is the richest and purest iron ore. Swedish iron is 
made from it. 

Red Hematite (Fe 2 3 ) is a rich, red-colored ore con- 
taining 70% of iron. It is the most plentiful and 



IRON AND STEEL 19 

widely distributed iron ore, and is the principal ore from 
which bessemer steel is made. 

Brown Hematite (2 Fe 2 3 -f- 3 H 2 0) is red hematite 
chemically combined with water. When pure it contains 
59.97 % of iron. 

Calcining or Roasting. — Before iron ore can be used 
as iron, it must be reduced to the metallic state by the 
process of smelting. Ores, such as the carbonate and 
sulphide ores, which contain much volatile matter, are 
calcined, i.e., heated slowly to a temperature below that 
of fusion, in order to drive off the volatile matter. In 
this manner the carbonate ore, Fe2C0 3 , is changed to 
Fe 2 3 . The sulphide ore, FeS 2 , is acted upon in a similar 
manner. 

The calcining is performed by placing the ore, together 
with the proper amount of fuel, in heaps in the open 
air or in roasting kilns. The fuel is ignited and the 
whole mass gradually heated. 

Water is driven off as steam, and the carbon dioxide 
(C0 2 ) and sulphur (S) go off as gases. Roasting in 
kilns is more satisfactory than in heaps, since the kilns 
can be worked continuously, for they are shaped like a 
large foundry cupola. 

REDUCTION AND REFINING OF ORES 

The Blast Furnace. — The first operation in the refin- 
ing of iron ore is performed in the blast furnace (Fig. 10). 
The product is called either cast or pig iron. The fur- 
nace consists of a vertical shaft of iron or steel plate from 
40 to 100 feet high, — the standard height ranging from 
75 to 85 feet, — which is lined with a refractory material, 
•thus leaving an interior circular space from 12 to 30 feet 
at its largest diameter, which maximum diameter is just 
below mid-height. From this region, the walls con- 
tract gradually in both upwards and downwards. 



20 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



The lower sloping portion is called the boshes. This 
terminates at the top of a cylindrical portion called the 
crucible, the bottom of which is called the hearth. 

The furnace is 
filled by placing 
the fuel, ore, and 
/ ^ <7y/? -flux in the hopper 
(A), and then low- 
ering the bell (B). 
Alternate layers of 
fuel, flux, and ore 
fill the furnace to 
the top of the melt- 
ing zone. 

Air is supplied 
under pressure of 
from fifteen to 
twenty-five pounds 
per square inch 
through a blast 
main or bustle pipe 
(C), which encircles 
the lower part of 
the furnace (Fig. 
10). Smaller pipes 
connect the bustle 
pipe with the in- 
terior of the fur- 
nace through 
tuyeres (T), near 
the top of the crucible. The air passes up through the 
furnace, thus supplying oxygen for combustion. The 
gases pass off through a gas main at the top of the 
furnace, later to be used in the hot-blast stoves, for 
power in engines, or under boilers. The metallic iron 




Fig. 10 



IRON AND STEEL 21 

and slags 1 both descend as liquids to the bottom and 
accumulate in the crucible (the light slag on top) until 
they are tapped off. The iron is tapped off at intervals 
at (F) and the slag at the cinder notch (G). The action 
of the blast furnace is as follows: As the fuel is con- 
sumed at the bottom the charge moves slowly downward 
and its temperature is constantly increased. The ore 
becomes roasted into either Fe 2 3 or Fe 3 4 . The lime- 
stone is changed to lime by giving up carbon dioxide 
(C0 2 ), and the fuel is burned either to carbon monoxide 
(CO) or carbon dioxide. This CO2 formed in these reac- 
tions, coming in contact with the fuel, is decomposed 
into CO and 0. The lime unites with the silica and 
alumina, forming a double silicate of aluminum and 
lime, which is melted in the lower part of the furnace. 
The iron oxide (Fe 2 3 ) freed from its impurities, coming 
in contact with the carbon monoxide (CO), gives up its 
(0), forming carbon dioxide (C0 2 ), and free iron. The 
iron, as it passes down into the hotter parts of the fur- 
nace, is in a spongy condition, in which state it readily 
absorbs carbon from the incandescent fuel. By this car- 
burization, the melting point of the iron is lowered so 
that it becomes melted and runs to the crucible as cast 
iron, and there accumulates till drawn off. The slag 
flows toward the bottom of the furnace, but being lighter 
than the iron, floats on it and is tapped off at a higher 
level. 

The air blast, before it reaches the furnace, is heated 
by passing through the hot-blast stoves (Fig. 11), which 
are heated by the gases from the furnaces. The stoves 
are used in pairs, so that one can be heated while the 
other is heating the blast. 

Wrought iron, the purest commercial form of iron, is 

1 The substance resulting from the fusing together of the flux 
and the impurities in the ore. 



22 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



made by clecarburizing pig iron by a process called 
Puddling in a furnace called a Puddling Furnace (Fig. 
12). Such a furnace consists of a horizontal concave 
hearth B, covered by a low arched roof, which reverber- 
ates heat upon 
the iron to be re- 
fined, which heat 
is produced by 
the combustion 
of a gaseous fuel 
in the space be- 
tween the roof 
and the hearth. 
This results in 
burning out 
nearly all the 
carbon, silicon, 
and manganese, 
and some of the 
phosphorus and 
sulphur. 

There are two 
puddlingpro- 
cesses, the dry 
and wet. In 
each, the opera- 
tion is composed 
of three periods 
— fusion, robbling, 1 and forming the blooms. 

Dry Puddling. — In this process, white or refined iron 
is chiefly used. The charge consists of about 4 cwt. of 
metal and some rich slags. This is partially melted, in 
about half an hour, to a pasty mass. The mass is then 

1 Robbling is the moving of the mass by means of the tools of 
the puddler. 




AIR in LET. 
Fig. 11 



IRON AND STEEL 



23 



:^\\\^\s^ 



stirred with an iron bar in order to expose all of the 
parts to the oxidizing influence of the air. As the im- 
purities are removed, the iron becomes less fusible, and 
requires that the temperature be greatly increased to 
keep the iron liquid, but as it is not, the particles begin 
to solidify. The particles of iron are worked together 
into balls, weigh- 
ing about 80 lbs., 
by the "pud- 
dlers," with a 
"puddle bar." 

Wet Puddling. 
— Wet puddling 
has succeeded the 
dry method, as 
the preliminary 
refining is there- 
by dispensed 
with. The pigs 
used in wet pud- 
dling are siliceous 
or strongly car- 
burized. 

The bed and 




Fig. 12 



sides of a modern puddling furnace are lined with re- 
fractory materials., such as mill scale or rich ore, which 
are rich in oxygen. When the iron is melted, it is acted 
upon by two oxidizing influences, the air and the iron 
oxide. The operation is shorter and the product more 
uniform than in the dry puddling process, since the 
robbling is more vigorous. 

The slags thus formed take up oxygen from the air, 
causing FeO to change to Fe 3 4 , and this oxidizes the 
impurities in the iron, silicon and manganese being acted 
upon first, then phosphorus, sulphur, and carbon. 



24 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

While carbon is being oxidized, carbonic oxide is 
formed, which bubbles to the surface, thus producing 
what is called the boiling stage. The entire mass is in a 
state of violent agitation. As the impurities are removed 
the iron gradually comes to nature, or solidifies, and is 
worked into balls as in the process of dry puddling. 
These balls are sponge-like masses of wrought iron, the 
interstices of which are filled with, liquid slag. After 
they are taken from the furnace, they are raised to a 
welding heat, the slag is squeezed out, and the metal 
welded into blooms with a hammer or squeezer. Then 
they are passed through rolls and shaped into merchant 
bars. 

MILD STEEL 

Open Hearth Process. — In this process pig iron is 
melted and to it is added wrought iron or cold steel 
scrap. The. furnace used is the Sieman's Regenerative 
Furnace (Fig. 13). It is a gas-fired furnace, using either 
natural or producer gas, which is made to give a very 
much higher temperature by being heated or regenerated 
before burning. The furnace has a hearth (A), covered 
over with a low flat roof to reverberate the heat. There 
are at least two passageways on either side, one at (R) 
for air and the other at (S) for gas, each connecting with 
a separate regenerator filled with fire-brick, which are 
laid with small openings between them to allow the pas- 
sage of gas and air. The gas and the air enter the fur- 
nace flues on the same side of the hearth, each going 
through its own regenerator compartment to the ter- 
minals, where they mix and burn over the hearth in the 
combustion chamber (B). The hot gases of combustion 
pass out through the passages on the side opposite to 
that of the other set of regenerators and in so doing heat 
the checker work (as the bricks are called) to a very 



IRON AND STEEL 



25 



high temperature. When one side has become hot and 
the other has cooled, the flow of gas and air is reversed, 







/tir 



Cf«S 



awi^uiiiiNi ^ let rasa \> mmm ^ % 
mm X ma him § isipeiw ^ vamw S % 



m 



M 



i i 



__ 7 _ j—^ 

1 / ,-^\Q,rF/u\& \ . 



«^T 



i ' i ; i f 



i i 



i 






\ *T vr </ / / 



so that the entering gas and air become highly heated 
in passing through these hot regenerators, and in burn- 
ing produce a very high temperature. The spent gases 
pass out through the opposite set of regenerators and 
heat them ready for another reversal. 



26 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

The Siemans-Martin, or pig or scrap process, consists 
of diluting, in a regenerative furnace, pig iron with 
scrap wrought iron or steel. The intense heat of the 
furnace keeps the steel liquid until it is poured into 
molds. There are three methods of producing open 
hearth steel. 

By the first method, the pig iron is charged on the 
hearth and melted with an oxidizing flame, during which 
process part of the silicon, manganese, and iron combines 
with the oxygen of the flame, as in the puddling process. 
Scrap is then charged in, but slowly, in order not to 
chill the melted metal. The scrap, having but little 
carbon, reduces the percentage of carbon in the melted 
total, which is converted into mild steel or essentially 
wrought iron, kept liquid by the in-tense heat. The in- 
jurious FeO that is present is eliminated by adding 
ferro-manganese, the manganese uniting with the oxygen 
to form slag. The resulting melt is cast into molds. 

The second method consists in charging wrought iron 
puddle balls into the melted pigs. 

The third method consists of charging the pig and scrap 
together. 

The Siemans, or pig and ore process. By this method, 
a bath of cast iron is decarburized by adding ore rich in 
oxygen, as Fe 3 4 or Fe 2 3 . The oxygen unites with the 
carbon, silicon, and manganese of the cast iron to form 
slag and CO. 

In the process just described, the lining of the hearth 
of the furnace is of silica which acts on the phosphorus 
in the iron, changing it to phosphoric acid, which re- 
mains in the iron. If the pig iron contains much phos- 
phorus, a lining of lime and magnesia is used. When 
iron is melted in a furnace having a lining of lime and 
magnesia, the process and furnace are said to be basic; 
and when a silica lining is used, they are termed acidic. 



IRON AND STEEL 



27 



Bessemer steel is made by a process differing radically 
from those described above in that liquid pig iron is 
converted into mild steel, no fuel being used, other than 
the oxidizable elements in the iron, which elements are 
burned out by the forcing of air through the liquid 




Fig. 14 



metal. The operation is performed in a Bessemer Con- 
verter (Fig. 14). It consists of a steel shell, lined with a 
refractory material, and in shape resembling the hub of 
a wagon wheel. It has a double bottom which contains 
an air chamber (C), connecting with numerous small 
openings called tuyeres. Air enters through the blast 
main (A). The entire converter is hung on trunnions so 
that it can be turned to a horizontal position for char- 
ging and back to the natural for blowing. 

To be charged, the converter is turned (Fig. 15) so 
that the liquid cast iron can be poured into it from a 
ladle or run into it direct from the blast furnace (Fron- 
tispiece). The converter is so made that when it is 



28 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




Fig. 15 



tipped for charging the iron cannot rise as high as the 
tuyere holes. Before the charged converter is turned 
to the vertical position, the air blast of about twenty- 
five pounds per square inch is turned on to prevent the 
iron from running out of the tuyeres while the con- 
verter is returning to, and assuming the vertical position. 
When the converter lining is acid, the silicon, man- 
ganese, and carbon of the iron are burned out simul- 
taneously by means of the 
air blast, which elements 
act as fuel to raise the 
temperature of the charge. 
The resulting slag is blown 
out of the mouth and is 
there burned, producing 
brilliant sparks. In the 
converter the carbon is 
burned to CO, which at 
the mouth burns to C0 2 . Thus the cast iron is changed 
to wrought iron or mild steel, which is kept liquid by 
the intense heat. When the charge has been properly 
converted, and this is told by the color of the flame, the 
converter is again turned on its side and molten spiegel- 
eisen is poured into the metal, to recarbonize it, to re- 
duce iron oxide, and to remove gases. The converter 
is then turned farther down so as to dump the entire 
charge into a ladle. From the ladle it is poured into 
ingot molds. In the acid process, or when the converter 
has a silica lining, no phosphorus is removed from the 
iron, and so with this lining in use the iron must be low 
in phosphorus. 

Basic Process. — For iron with much phosphorus a 
basic lining is used. The phosphorus in this case takes 
the place of the silicon as the fuel. In the basic process 
we have so large a quantity of slag formed thai; it must 



IRON AND STEEL 29 

be poured off, and then the converter is returned for a 
short period of blowing called an after blow, to convert 
the remaining phosphorus into slag. The remainder of 
the process is the same as the acid process. The tem- 
perature at which the metal is poured into the ingot 
molds must be carefully regulated or the ingots will be 
porous. If the cast iron has too much of the fuel ele- 
ments the temperature will be too high; and if too little, 
it will be too low. When too high, the temperature is 
reduced by adding scrap steel; when too low, the con- 
verter is tipped to one side and a part of the tuyere 
holes are uncovered to introduce oxygen to burn the 
CO to CO2 inside the converter, instead of at the mouth, 
and thus to heat the metal as in a reverberatory furnace. 

The capacity of a Bessemer Converter varies from 
1000 pounds to about 15 tons and the average time of 
working 10 tons is about 20 minutes. 

Ingot molds are made of cast iron. They are from 
6 to 7 feet high, open at the top and bottom and taper- 
ing from the base, the large end being the bottom. The 
bottom is closed by setting the mold on a cast-iron 
plate. After the molds have been poured and allowed 
to cool slightly, the mold is lifted off and the ingots are 
placed in a soaking pit, where they can cool slowly so 
that the interior will solidify and the outside will not 
become cold. This gives a uniform temperature through- 
out, so that the ingot is ready for rolling into bars, 
rails, etc. 

It is interesting to note that to make a steel rail by 
the Bessemer process, after the iron leaves the blast 
furnace no additional fuel is necessary other than that 
contained within itself. 

Tool Steel or Crucible Steel. — The best tool steel is 
made from wrought iron by the cementation process. 
Bars of the purest wrought iron are cut into pieces about 



30 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

f" by 5" by 12" and are packed with alternate layers 
of finely crushed charcoal in boxes of fire-brick. The 
cover is luted on with clay to prevent the air and furnace 
gases from injuring the contents. It is then placed into 
a furnace and slowly heated to about 3000 degrees F. 
At this temperature it is held for several days and then 
allowed to cool. While thus heated the iron absorbs a 
portion of the charcoal (carbon), but not uniformly, the 
carbon being more dense near the surface. From the 
blisters that have formed on its surface, the product of 
this process is termed blister steel. These bars are 
coarse-grained and brittle and must be broken into 
small pieces, placed in fire-clay or graphite crucibles, 
and then placed in a crucible furnace where a tempera- 
ture high enough to melt the steel is obtained. When 
melted, the crucibles are lifted out and the contents 
poured or teemed, as it is called, into ingots (about 3" by 
3" by 3") of the same composition throughout but coarse- 
grained and weak. It is next reheated and rolled or 
hammered into commercial bars of fine grain. The more 
the bar is hammered the closer and finer becomes the 
grain. 

Cheaper grades of steel are made by omitting the 
cementation process and charging the wrought iron and 
charcoal into the crucible. When the iron melts it ab- 
sorbs the carbon. A cheap grade also may be made by 
melting together wrought iron and cast iron. 

The special high-speed steels are made in about the 
same way as the carbon steels, except that they contain 
amounts of other chemical elements or compounds added 
to the contents of the crucible. 

Rolling Mill. — Wrought iron and steel, after they 
have reached the bloom or ingot stage, must be rolled. 
This rolling is done in a rolling mill which consists of 
two or three rolls held in position by a frame called 



IRON AND STEEL 



31 



a housing. A mill of the old form contained two rolls 
and was called a two high mill. In this mill the rolls 




m ma ma 




[Wtdstds 



XD 



revolved in opposite directions so as to draw the iron into 
them. The rolls are either plain, as when the plates are 
being rolled, or grooved, as when shapes are to be made. 



32 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

In the two high mill after the bars had been passed 
through the roll, they had to be passed back to the start- 
ing side by being lifted over the top roll. They were then 
passed back through the rolls, but through a smaller 
and possibly differently shaped groove, until of desired 
shape and size. This passing of the iron back over the 
top roll consumed time and allowed the iron to cool; 
hence there was made the three high mill (Fig. 16) in 
which the iron could be reduced by rolling through the 
two top rolls on its way back. Now a train or several 
series of rolls are used so that a bar can be started in at 
one end of the series of rolls and come out finished at the 
other. Each series of rolls must be speeded enough 
faster than those before so that they will pass the 
lengthened bars through without allowing the bars to 
buckle. 

The hammering of tool steel is accomplished by means 
of ordinary steam or power hammers. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS ON IRON AND STEEL 

1. What is iron obtained from? 

2. Name the important iron ores. 

3. What is calcining or roasting? How is it done? What 
does a roasting kiln look like? 

4. What is a blast furnace used for? Describe its parts. 
How is ore and flux charged on? What is flux? What is the 
operation of the blast furnace? How and when is the charge 
tapped off? 

5. What is a hot-blast stove? What is it used for? Why 
are hot-blast stoves worked in pairs? 

6. What is wrought iron? What is puddling? Describe a 
puddling furnace. How many puddling processes are there? 
Name them. What kind of flame is used in dry puddling? What 
becomes of the impurities in the iron? What happens to the melt- 
ing point of iron when the impurities burn out? What is a 
puddle ball; a puddler? Are the puddle balls solid? What is a 
bloom? 



IRON AND STEEL 33 

7. In wet puddling how is the oxygen obtained? What kind 
of lining is used? What advantage is there in using the wet 
process? 

8. What is melted and made in the open-hearth process? 
What kind of a furnace is used? What are regenerators? What 
is the Siemans-Martin process? Describe the various methods. 
What does ferro-manganese do when added to - the melt on an 
open-hearth furnace? What is the Siemans pig and ore process? 
Where does the oxygen come from in this process? What is the 
effect of the silicon lining of a furnace on phosphorus in the iron? 
Why is the hearth of the furnace sometimes lined, previous to 
melting, with alkaline substance as lime and magnesia? What is 
meant by basic process? What is the capacity of an open-hearth 
furnace? 

9. What is Bessemer steel? How is it produced? How does it 
differ radically from other processes? How is the metal prevented 
from running out through the tuyeres? What furnishes the fuel? 
What does the spiegeleisen do? When is the lining of a converter 
acid or basic? Why must the temperature be carefully regulated 
during the pouring of ingot molds? Describe ingot molds. Why 
are ingots placed in soaking pits? 

10. What is the first step in making the best tool steel? What 
materials are used? Why does the blister steel have to be re- 
melted? What improves the grain of the steel, after it is poured 
into ingots? 

11. What is a two high mill? A three high mill? What is a 
train of mills? Why must each set of rolls in a train have a 
successive different speed? 



CHAPTER III 
EQUIPMENT 

After we have studied the nature and manufacture of 
iron and steel and before we take up the shaping of 
these materials into articles of ornament and daily use, 
it seems natural that the shop equipment used for this 




Fig. 17 

purpose should be considered. This equipment may be 
divided into two classes: (A) general tools; (B) small or 
hand tools. 

(A) GENERAL TOOLS 

Forges. — The forge in which the iron is heated is 
the most important part of the equipment of a shop. 



EQUIPMENT 



35 




Fie. 18 



Forges range in size 
from a small por- 
table iron forge to 
the large, station- 
ary brick forge. 
Forges are of two 
types : the up-draf t, 
and the down-draft. 
In the up-draf t 
forge, the smoke 
and gases pass up 
a chimney by nat- 
ural draft (Figs. 17 
and 18). Fig. 17 
shows a portable 
forge having a 
blower operated by 
a crank. Fig. 18 shows a forge that is similar, except 
that the blower is worked by a handle which operates 
a ratchet and wheel. Fig. 19 shows the old-style 
brick forge which is blown by a bellows. 

In the down- 
draft forge, the 
smoke and gas 
are sucked or 
drawn under 
the hood and 
downward by a 
suction blower. 
Fig. 20 shows 
one of the 
several types 
of this forge. 
The downward 
draft forge is 




36 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



supplied with blast from a power-driven fan or blower, 
while a second blower is used to suck the smoke and 
gases under the hood and down and out of the room. 
Down-draft forges are the most desirable for schools or 
shops where several forges are used at one time, as 
they act to ventilate the shop by carrying off the smoke 




Fig. 20 



and gases and to keep it cool by causing a circulation 
of air. 

The parts of a forge are (a) fire-pan, (b) hood, (c) 
tuyere, (d) lever to regulate the blast, (e) lever to dump 
ashes and clinkers, (/) coal box, (g) water box, (h) 
blast pipe, (i) gas and smoke outlet, (j) cleaning door. 



EQUIPMENT 



37 



Fig. 21 shows two styles of tuyeres. That shown at 
(a) is a square plate with several holes and is connected 
with a lever so that to expel the ashes it can be dropped. 



c 6 



« 




Fig. 21 



Fig. 22 



The lower door is a solid plate and is used to close the 
ash chute. The tuyere at (b) is so arranged that it can 
be revolved to make a wide or narrow fire. When in the 
position shown, the blast is spread and a large, wide fire 
results. When placed with the vertex of the triangle up, 
as at (c), the blast is converged to produce a narrow fire. 
At (d) is shown the " whirlwind" tuyere. The makers 
claim for this tuyere that it is anti-clinkering; that it 




produces a circular, rotary whirlwind blast; and that 
by the deep nest the heat is concentrated instead of 
being blown out of the chimney, thus making quickly 



38 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




leather /mtfe. 



and cheaply a hot and non-oxidizing fire. The hoods on 
down-draft forges can be raised and lowered. 1 

Blowers are of two types, the fan (Fig. 22) and the 
pressure (Fig. 23). The pressure blower is the better 

since it gives a 
Hfa — ■«■* steady blast, where- 

as that from the fan 
is spasmodic. 

Bellows (Fig. 24) 

were formerly much 

used to furnish 

the blast for blowing the fire, but they are rarely found 

in modern shops. 

Anvil. — Next to the forge the anvil (Fig. 25) is the 
most important part of the shop equipment. Anvils 
are rated by their weight; No. 150 meaning one that 
weighs 150 pounds. The size used in shops ranges from 
No. 150 to No. 250 and is selected according to the work 

r/iarc/ie Ho/e 



Fig. 24 




to be done. Anvils weighing 100 lbs. are very satisfactory 
for school use. On the older anvils of English make the 
weight is stamped on the side. Three numbers are used; 

1 The author believes a forge open underneath is the better, as 
the parts are more accessible for repairs. 




EQUIPMENT 39 

the first represents hundredweight (cwt.) of 112 lbs., the 
second or middle number, the quarters of a hundred- 
weight, and the third or right-hand number, the odd 
pounds. Thus 1-2-8 means 112 lbs. + 56 lbs. + 8 lbs. = 
176 lbs. This anvil would be called a 175 lb. anvil. 

The names of the parts of an anvil are shown in 
Fig. 25. About half the length of the edge (a) is rounded 
to a quarter-circle as shown in Fig. 26. 
The radius (r) of the curve varies from 
about \" at the cutting block to zero or 
a sharp edge at (6), Fig. 25. The bal- 
ance of this edge and all of the other 
edges of the face are sharp and will cut 

stock when it is hammered against them. -p,. oc 

. J<ig. 26 

The object of this rounded edge is to 
have a place where stock can be bent at an angle without 
danger of being cut, as this might cause the work to crack. 
The square or hardie hole is designed to hold the hardie 
and bottom swages and fullers. The round hole, called 
the punch or pritchel hole, is used in punching holes, to 
give a place through which slugs can pass. The pritchel 
hole is also sometimes used as a heading tool. The face 
of the anvil is made of tool steel welded to the body, 
and hardened, so it is not easily injured by hammering 
upon it. The cutting block is left soft so that cutters 
and chisels when coming in contact with it when cutting 
or splitting through a piece of iron will not be dulled. 
Pieces to be cut should be placed on the cutting block 
and not on the face of the anvil. 

The anvil should be set on a heavy block of wood or 
on a cast-iron base made for the purpose. The wood 
block is to be preferred since it is more elastic. The cast- 
iron base is neater in appearance and for light work is 
very good. The height of an anvil should be suited to 
the smith. For most convenient use it should be high 



40 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



enough, so that when he stands erect with arms hanging 
naturally the knuckles will just touch the top edge of 
the face. It should be firmly fastened to the block by 
straps across the feet or by other suitable devices (Fig. 
27) . There are other styles of anvils than that shown in 





Fig. Ti 



Fig. 28 



Fig. 25; as the ferriers (Fig. 28), and the double horn 
(Fig. 29). They are used little and need no further 
reference. 

Power shears (Fig. 30) and power hammers (Figs. 
218-222) should be in every shop. Almost any size of 

shears can be had, 
but one that cuts 
stock from 1" to 
\\" square is large 
enough for most 
shops. Power 
hammers can be 
obtained that are 
rated from 25 lbs. 
up. The average work to be handled will indicate the 
size that should be selected. 

Swage-blocks (Fig. 31) are used for many purposes 
but mainly in place of bottom swages. This tool con- 
sists of a cast-iron block pierced with numerous holes — 
round, square, and rectangular — provided with edges 
with grooves of various sizes, in circular and V-forms. 




Fie. 29 



EQUIPMENT 



41 




Fig. 30 



The block is used either as a bolster or heading tool 
when lying upon its side, or as bottom swages when 
standing on one edge. The ^ -2S3-I&*— ~v ^ c 
swage-block serves its pur- 
pose best when mounted on i 
a stand (Fig. 32). The top 

(a) is made of 2" by 2" /| L C 

angles and bent to the size (§i \MM \JJa s?V 

and shape of the block and 
mounted on four stiff legs. 
The lower leg of the angle 
(a) is on the inside, where 
it forms a shelf on which Fi §- 31 

the block can be rested, as shown by the full lines at (b). 




42 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 






The stirrup (c) is attached to (a) at the middle so that 
also the stand will hold the block 
in the position indicated by the 
dotted lines (d). 

The Mandrel (Fig. 33) is used for 
finishing rings to circular shape, 
■r-^ « Bench. — A shop is not com- 

^ S3 plete without a suitable bench on 
which to place a vise and to do 
laying out and other work. 






Fig. 33 



Fig. 34 



Vise. — Fig. 34 shows a vise, usually called a black- 
smith's vise, which is cheap and suitable for rough 
work, but the one shown in 
Fig. 35, having swivel jaws and 
an attachment for holding pipe, 
is to be preferred. 

Drill Press. — A smith's shop 
ought to have a drill press of 
some form. If the work is light, Fig. 35 




EQUIPMENT 



43 



it may be a small hand-driven post drill, but a power- 
driven drill is to be preferred. 




(B) SMALL OR HAND TOOLS 

Hammer. — Fig. 36 shows four types of hammers 
used in the forge shop. The 
one most common is the ball 
pene shown at (a) . The square- 
faced hammer shown at (d), 
known as the blacksmith's 
hammer, is very much used. 
The straight pene (b) and the 
cross pene (c) find favor on some classes of work and 
with some smiths. 

The heads should weigh from 1^ lbs. to 2 lbs. The 
length of the handles varies with the weight of the heads, 
but it should be about 14" to 16" long. The handle 
should be fitted to the head with great care so that the 
hammer will hang true; that is, so that the center line of 
the head will pass through the major axis of a cross-sec- 
tion of the handle and also be at right angles to the length 
of the handle (Fig. 37). If the handle is not fitted cor- 
rectly it is impossible to strike accurately. 





Fig. 37 



A Sledge is a hammer weighing from 5 lbs. to 20 lbs. 
with a handle from 30" to 36" long. A sledge weighing 
from 8 lbs. to 10 lbs. is the best for ordinary use. It is 
used by the helper when heavy blows are needed either 



44 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



on the work direct or on some tool as a swage, fuller, 
or flatter. Fig. 38 shows a cross pene (a), straight 
pene (6), and double-faced sledge 
(c). The cross pene is used most; 
while the double-faced is found in 
but few shops. The eye for the 
handle in the straight and cross 
pene sledges is placed above the 
center of gravity, so that the sledge 
will naturally hang face down in the striker's hands. 

Tongs take first place among the small or hand tools 
used by the blacksmith, for without them he could not 
hold the hot iron. Fig. 39 represents the flat or plain 
tongs used for holding flat iron. They should be made 




Fig. 39 



Fie. 40 



with a groove down the center of the bit so that round 
stock also can be held in them. Fig. 40 represents 
box tongs used for holding rectangular stock which is 
to be bent or worked on the edge. The box shape 




Fig. 41 Fig. 42 

prevents the work from slipping around. Fig. 41 shows 
a pair of box tongs that can be adapted to a wide range 
of work by making several box pieces (a) to fit the 
various sizes of stock handled. Fig. 42 shows these 
tongs in use. Fig. 43 indicates a pair of round bit 
tongs for round stock. Fig. 44 represents the hollow 



Fig. 43 



Fig. 44 



EQUIPMENT 



45 



bit or bolt tongs suitable for holding stock having an 
end larger than the body of the work, as does a bolt. 
The bit can be made with either round or square 
grooves. The square ones are to be preferred for they 
hold either square or round stock. Fig. 45 shows tongs 




Fie. 45 



Fig. 46 



for large round, or square work. Pick-up tongs (Fig. 
46) are used, as the name indicates, for picking up 
work and tools from the floor. Fig. 47 shows pincer 



Fig. 47 



Fig. 49 



tongs. Fig. 48 represents tongs of special shapes with 
bent and crooked bits. In Fig. 49 is shown the proper 
way to grip flat work with plain 
tongs. The stock touches the 
bit at both (a) and (b). Fig. 50 
shows the shape 
of bits for prop- 
erly gripping 
round work and 
Fig. 51, the proper 
grip by means of the square bit. 
Chisels. — Next in importance 
are the chisels used for cutting 
off or splitting work. Fig. 52 represents a hot chisel used 
for cutting hot stock. It is made thin and sharp so that 
it will penetrate the hot metal rapidly and thus prevent 
the loss of temper. It is thin, since great strength is not 




Fig. 50 Fig. 51 




Fig. 48 



46 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



required to cut hot metal. Fig. 53 is a cold chisel or 
cutter, for cutting cold stock. It is made blunt for 






Fig. 52 



Fig. 53 



Fig. 54 



strength. Fig. 54 shows a gouge chisel used in making 
round corners. It is an inside or an outside tool accord- 
ing to the way it is ground. 

Punches (Fig. 55) are used for making holes of round, 
square or elliptical cross-section through stock. Fig. 56 
indicates a bob or counter punch used for counter-sinking 
holes for screw heads. In Fig. 57 is shown a cupping 
tool used in rounding off or finishing the heads of rivets. 




Fig. 55 



Fig. 56 




The Set Hammer (Fig. 58) is used for setting down 
work and working in small places, or for producing 
sharp edges. It is usually made with square edges, 
though some have rounded ones and are then called 
round-edge . set hammers. The flatter (Fig. 59) is used 
for smoothing work and giving a finished appearance by 
taking out the unevenness left by the hand hammer. 
Fig. 60 shows a special tool called a foot tool, used on 



EQUIPMENT 



47 



work that cannot be reached by the set hammer. The 
foot reaches the part of the work that it is desired 




Fig. 58 



Fie. 59 



Fig. 60 



to have worked, while the head remains where it can 
receive the blows from the sledge. 

Swage. — Fig. 61 represents a top swage for rounding 
up work. Fig. 62 indicates the bottom swage. The 
bottom, swage has a projection that fits into the hardie 
hole of the anvil. In Fig. 63 is indicated a spring 




Fig. 61 



Fig. 62 



Fig. 63 



swage. This consists of a top and bottom swage held 
together by a spring which insures the proper position 
of the two swages. Fig. 64 
represents a nut swage for 
making nuts and bolt heads. 
A collar swage, used for tru- 
ing up collars on shafts, is 
Fig - 64 indicated in Fig. 65. 
Fuller. — Fig. 66 shows a top and Fig. 67 a bottom 





Fig. 65 



48 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



fuller, used for bending the fibers of iron, without cut- 
ting, when a section is to be reduced at some point. 






Fig. 66 



Fig. 67 



Fig. 68 



Fig. 69 



Hardie. — A hardie, which is nothing more than a 
bottom cutting tool, is represented in Fig. 68. It fits 
in the hardie hole of the anvil and is used for cutting 
off stock, either alone or with the hot or cold cutters. 



fPH 





Fig. 70 



Fie. 71 



Fig. 72 



Miscellaneous. — -Fig. 69 shows an anvil cone; Fig. 

70, a fork for bending work; Fig. 71, for bending flat 

stock; Fig. 72, a hand heading tool, for 

making heads 

on bolts; Fig. 

73, a saddle Fig. 74 

for drawing 

out forked pieces; and Fig. 74, a mandrel 
Fig. 73 for finishing nuts, etc. 




EQUIPMENT 



49 





Fig. 75 



Fig. 76 



The shop should be further provided with calipers 
(Fig. 75), a steel square, and a measuring wheel (Fig. 
76). 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

Into what classes may a forge equipment be divided? What is 
the forge used for? What kinds are there? How many types of 
forges? How does each work? Name the parts of a forge. 
What type of forge is the most desirable for a large shop? Name 
the types of blowers, and tell which is the best. Name the parts 
of an anvil. How are they selected for size? What is the round 
edge for? How should a hammer head be fitted? Name, the 
different types of hammers. What is the sledge used for? Name 
the types of sledges. Describe six types of tongs. What is a 
hot cutter? Why is its edge made thin? Why is a cold cutter 
blunt and stubby? What are the shapes of punches? 



CHAPTER IV 
FUEL AND FIRES 

The selection of a fuel and the making and care 
of a fire are essential to first-class work. Especially 
is this so in welding iron and working tool steel. No 
matter how good his shop equipment or how fine his 
set of tools, the smith cannot produce good work with 
them if his fire is dirty, too thin, or otherwise not 
suited to the work in hand. 

Fuel. — The coal employed in the forge should be a 
bituminous coking coal, as free from ash, sulphur, 
and other injurious matter as possible. It should be 
fine screening or run of mine. If it is run of mine, 
the large lumps should be broken into fine pieces. 
The excellence of coal is determined by the watching 
of how the fire burns. If it sometimes gives a hot fire 
and sometimes not; if it comes up fast and then rapidly 
dies out; if the flame is red, edged with blue; if the 
coke that is formed is dark-colored and easily crumbled; 
if it is difficult to make welds; then the coal is of in- 
ferior quality. The following tests, offered by the 
Pennsylvania "Coal and Coke Company, can be per- 
formed by any one and will aid greatly in the selection 
of suitable forging coal. 

Tests. — Take several pieces the size of your fist 
and crack them open. If little white scales or brown 
deposits appear between the layers, they are sulphur. 
It is bad for any iron and steel and absolutely prevents 
making good welds. A suitable smithing coal contains 
no such white scales or brown deposits. 



FUEL AND FIRES " 51 

Look at the coke formed around the edge of the fire. 
If it is not solid, and not of a clear gray color, the 
coal contains a large quantity of dirt. A suitable 
smithing coal forms a clear gray coke, of even grain, 
which, when burned, makes a hot, steady fire. 

A blue edge around the flame indicates a large amount 
of injurious sulphur. A suitable smithing coal, being 
practically free from sulphur, makes a pure red and 
yellow flame. 

Look closely at your coal pile and see how many 
pieces of dull gray slate you can pick out, just from the 
surface of the pile. Slate is not coal. It itself will not 
burn, and it keeps the coal with which it is mixed from 
burning freely. 

If your fire is hot in spots, or for a short time, and 
then "drops out," the coal is low in heat efficiency and 
is not adapted to smithing. A suitable smithing coal 
maintains a high, clear heat for a remarkably long 
time, because it is all pure heat-giving material. 

Charcoal is often substituted for coal, especially 
when tool steel is being worked. It is almost pure car- 
bon and contains no sulphur, and will therefore intro- 
duce nothing injurious into the iron or steel. Due to 
its light weight a strong blast would blow it out of the 
fire. It therefore is poorly suited for work requiring 
a strong fire. Its use is rapidly growing less. 

Fire.- — Three types of fires are used by the smith; 
namely, the plain open fire, the side-banked fire, and the 
hollow fire. Each may be either oxidizing or reducing, 
according to the depth of the fire and the amount of 
blast. When the fire is so thin that the blast can 
pass through it without all the oxygen being consumed, 
this oxygen will attack the iron, forming ferrous oxide 
or scale. A fire of this kind is an oxidizing fire, and 
should not be used. On the other hand, a deep fire 



52 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

in which all the oxygen is consumed before reaching 
the iron is known as a reducing fire, for it sometimes 
extracts oxygen from the scale, changing the scale back 
to iron. It is therefore essential in whichever way the 
fire is built to keep the fire so thick that the oxygen 
will be consumed before reaching the iron. 

The Plain Open Fire is the simplest and easiest fire 
to make. The unburned coal and coke from the last 
fire is scraped back from around the tuyere and the 
cinders and ashes are removed; thus a hole over the 
tuyere is left. A handful of shavings is placed in this 
hole and lighted. Some of the small pieces of coke 
from the last fire are now scraped over the shavings 
and the blower is started. In a very short time, white 
smoke arises, followed by tongues of flame. If the 
flame does not soon appear, a small opening is made 
through the center of the fire or coke by passing the 
poker down to the tuyere. This allows the entrance 
of air and the gas burns with a flame. As soon as the 
coke ignites, wet green coal is placed at the edge of 
the fire and patted down with the fire shovel. As the 
fire is used, green coal is added from time to time at 
the edge of the fire and the coked portion is pushed 
forward over the tuyeres. This kind of fire is useful 
for small work but has the disadvantage of spreading 
badly. Wetting the coal around the edges will keep 
the spreading down to some extent. 

The Side-banked Fire is the best for general use. 
It is made in the following manner. The coke from 
the last fire is cleared away from around the tuyeres 
for a considerable distance, and the ashes and clinkers 
are removed. A block of wood wide enough to cover 
the tuyere, and as long and as high as the banks are to 
be made, is placed over the tuyere. The block should 
extend lengthwise away from the operator. Wet green 



FUEL AND FIRES 



53 



coal x is now packed on each side of this block (Fig. 
77) to a depth of four inches or more, according to the 




length of time the fire is to be used. The block is 
removed and the banks nicely rounded with the hands. 
This leaves a trough-like space (Fig. 78) between the 




1 The fine green coal is wet with water and turned with a shovel 
until all is equally wet. Care must be taken not to get it so wet 
that the water will run out of it. 



54 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




banks, which should be left open at the ends. The 
fire is started by placing shavings between the banks 
and igniting them. The fuel in this type of fire is the 
coke formed from the banks of the previous fire and 

broken to proper size 
and added to the fire 
as needed. 

The Hollow Fire is 
made in a manner sim- 
ilar to the side-banked 
fire. The sides of the fire are farther apart and are 
curved in and brought together at the back, making one 
continuous " C "-shaped wall (Fig. 79). The fire is now 
started inside of this wall and built up with coke, as high 
as the desired inside 
height of the opening. 
The roof is next laid 
in that the smith com- 
pletely covers the coke 
with well-tamped wet 
green coal, from bank 
to bank, except for the 




Fig. 80 



Qpeoiqtjfy 1 



Cha* 



opening in front, as shown by the transverse section of 
Fig. 80. As the coke burns down the inside of the roof 
is coked enough to bind the coal. This makes it self- 

^ ,, r .=f ; : -^' ,. ; supporting, and also 

leaves an open space 
between the roof and 
the fire, shown in 
longitudinal section 
of Fig. 81, in which 
Fig. 81 articles can be heated. 

This fire is not very extensively used, but when it is, 
a very intense heat can be obtained as the heat is re- 
flected or reverberated from the roof upon the metal 




FUEL AND FIRES 55 

which is being heated. An important use of this fire 
is in welding steel to iron. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

Why is the selection of a fuel important? What is the most 
common fuel for forging? What are the tests for good coal? 
What do white and brown spots in coal indicate? What gives 
the blue flame sometimes seen in a forge fire? Why? What 
does the color of the coke indicate? What does slate in the 
coal pile do? What does a short-lived fire indicate? Is char- 
coal a good fuel? Why? How many types of fires are there? 
What is an oxidizing fire? What is a reducing fire? Describe 
how each type of fire is built. Which is the best for general 
use? 



CHAPTER V 



DRAWING DOWN AND UPSETTING 




In this chapter, drawing down and upsetting, the 
two fundamental operations of forging, are treated. 
There is scarcely a forging of any description that 

does not involve one or both 
of these operations. A dis- 
cussion of these processes, 
however, must be preceded 
by instructions : How to stand 
at the anvil, and how to 
hold the hammer and sledge. 
Position at the Anvil. — 
The smith should stand erect 
(Fig. 82) about 12" behind 
the anvil. His feet should be 
at right angles, the heels not 
over six inches apart, with 
the left foot nearly opposite 
the center of the anvil. This 
will place the body almost 
opposite the heel of the anvil 
and the face turned a little 
towards the horn. The tongs 
should be carefully selected 
so that they will grip the. 
work tightly. They should be 
held firmly in the left hand, 1 straight out from the 
center of the anvil, and at such a height that the work 

1 A right-handed smith is being considered in all these descrip- 
tions. 




Fig. 82 



DRAWING DOWN AND UPSETTING 57 

will lie flat on the face of the anvil. If the hand is 
held too high or too low, the work will become bent by 
the hammer blows. The hammer is held in the right 
hand, so that the handle will project about 1" beyond 
the hand. The handle is gripped between the first 
two fingers and thumb, so that the ring and little fingers 
close in on the handle very lightly. If the handle is 
gripped so tightly as to jar the hand when striking a 
blow, a sore or blistered hand will be the result. 

Striking is done as follows: the arm is held out from 
the body just enough to give good clearance. The 
hammer thus held is raised until the hand is above the 
shoulder and the wrist is tipped backward, which tip 
gives to the hammer a little additional swing; and the 
blow is produced with a full arm swing — the forearm 
unfolds from the elbow, and the hand moves downward 
at the wrist just as the arm reaches its full downward 
position. The beginner may find that at first he strikes 
wildly, but with short practise he can deliver a true 
and very effective blow. 

When light blows for finishing a piece are needed, 
the handle is gripped about the middle between the 
thumb and four fingers, the thumb resting along the 
top of the handle. The blow is struck with a forearm 
movement. 

Sledge. — The helper, when using the sledge, should 
stand in front of the anvil directly opposite the smith, 
and far enough away so that the sledge will just reach 
the work; this distance depends on the kind of blow 
struck and the length of the handle and of the helper's 
arms. There are two ways of striking with a sledge: 
(a) straight down from the shoulder, and (6) a full 
arm swing in a complete circle. This latter is a much 
more powerful blow, but is to be used with caution 
by the beginner. When using the straight downward 



58 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

blow, one grasps the sledge with the right hand at the 
end of the handle, swings it from the floor to the height 
of the waist, grasps the handle at about the middle 
with the left hand, lifts with both hands until the left 
is over the left shoulder (Fig. 83), x and strikes straight 
downward onto the work, — without changing the hands, 
barely letting the right hand slip towards the end. 

When striking a swinging blow one grasps with both 
hands close to the end of the handle, and the sledge is 
placed on the work where the blow is desired. The 
helper then steps back till his arms are at full length 
(Fig. 84). The feet are placed at about right angles 
but the heels should be fully 12" apart. In this posi- 
tion one can swing the sledge through a circle and 
down upon his work, producing a heavy blow. 

DRAWING DOWN 

Drawing down or drawing out consists in lengthening 
the stock by reducing the area of the cross section, 
either throughout its entire length or a portion. The 
cross section may be kept the same shape or it may be 
changed, as from round to square or from square to 
octagonal. Small stock usually is worked on the face 
of the anvil. When the iron is to be expanded, both 
in length and breadth, the flat face of the hammer is 
used, but when it is to be stretched in one way only, 
the pene of the hammer is used, and the work is struck 
with the pene at right angles to the direction in which 
extension is desired. This action is that of a dull wedge 
forcing the metal in the desired direction. The straight 
pene should be used for widening the stock as shown 

1 It is natural for some people to take hold of the handle with 
the hands reversed from the position just described. For such 
persons the description will answer if they substitute the words 
right hand for left hand, in each case. 



DRAWING DOWN AND UPSETTING 



59 




Fig. 83 



60 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




\ 



Fig. 84 



DRAWING DOWN AND UPSETTING 



61 



in Fig. 85; and the cross pene for lengthening it as in 
Fig. 86. The face of many anvils is crowned and when 
this is the case 
the stock can be 
lengthened by 
holding as in Fig. 
86 and by strik- 
ing either with 
hammer-face or 
pene. When the 
stock is to be 
widened it should 
be held as in Fig. 
87. Large work 
that is to be made 
much longer, but 
little if any wider, 
or is to have its 
section greatly 
reduced, can be 
drawn out much 
more rapidly on 
the horn (Fig. 
88) than on the 
face of the anvil, 
since the round- 
ed horn, like the 
dull wedge, as 
explained above, 
forces the metal 
lengthwise and 
prevents the 
work from wi- 
dening. When °' 
the stock that is being drawn down is to have the 




Fig. 86 




62 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



sides parallel, care must be taken to have the hammer 
face fall parallel to the anvil. 

Drawing Down a Square Bar. — If a bar of square 
section is to be drawn down square but smaller, the 




Fig. 88 

bar should be turned accurately a quarter turn at 
each blow. The art of rolling the stock a quarter turn 
is not easy, and the first attempts are almost sure to 
produce a diamond-shaped cross section, but when 

learned it is remark- 
able what true work 
can be produced. If 
a diamond - shaped 
section results, it can 
be brought back to 
the square by strik- 
ing as shown in Fig. 
89. Rectangular 
stock is handled in 
the same way as 
lg " square stock, after 

the sides of the rectangle have been made to bear 
the proper proportions to each other. Thus if the dimen- 
sions of the stock to be drawn down are, say 2 to 1 
as in (a) Fig. 90, and the desired section is to be 3 
to 1 as in (6) Fig. 90, then face (c) should be struck 




DRAWING DOWN AND UPSETTING 63 

to lengthen it and shorten face (d) until (e) is 3 times 
(/); after that the sides should be kept in this pro- 
portion by turning a quarter turn after each blow. 
Changing from rectangular 

section to square, or from . C c 

square to rectangular, should Q <* I £ \j- 

be accomplished in the same ^. nn 

Fig. 90 
way. Un square or rectan- 
gular stock, only two sides need receive the blows. It 
is good practise for a beginner to hammer a bar of 
cold iron and observe the indentations. If he does not 
bring the hammer down flat the marks will tell quickly. 
Drawing Down Round Stock. — Round stock, even if 
it is to be round when finished, should always be drawn 
down square to the required size and then rounded 
with as few blows as possible. If it is attempted to 
keep the stock round throughout the process, the bar 
may become cupped at the ends and split through the 
center, as shown in Fig. 91. The cup- 
ping is due to a too rapid working of 
the outer surface, which causes it to 
stretch more than the interior. This 
outer stretching can be carried so far as to cause the 
outer surface to become entirely loosened from the 
center of the stock. The cracks are due to a move- 
ment of fibers, illustrated by Fig. 92 
and explained as follows : a downward *a $ JLf 
blow at (a) will tend to distort the (f y, 6 A 
circle to an ellipse, as shown by the ^]r 99*'^ 
dotted lines, and when turned slightly 

for the next blow the sides 

(_a (v|p <* $ &^3||S g..^>'J .0 will roll by each other as at 

^6 (c). This, repeated many 

times, develops cracks. Fig. 

93 illustrates the steps in drawing from round to 



64 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



round: (a) shows the original stock, first the section is 
reduced to a square, the sides (6) of which should 
measure slightly less than the diameter (c) of the piece 
desired. 1 The four corners are now hammered so as 
to make the section octagonal. These corners are 
hammered into eight more sides; and so on, until the 
section is round. 

When drawing down to a round point, one must 
follow the same course. The end should be drawn to 
a square pyramid of proper size and length and then 
rounded by being hammered first to four corners, then 
to eight, etc. The point always must be kept hot, 
or it will split. In drawing down the iron should be 
heated to a bright red and not hammered after it 
reaches a dull red, except in finishing, when it is ham- 
mered with light blows from a dull red to a black. 



UPSETTING 

Upsetting or jumping up is the reverse operation of draw- 
ing down; a piece is shortened in length and the cross- 
section increased in one dimension or more. Upsetting 

is a slower and more 
laborious process than 
drawing down. There 
are several methods of 
upsetting. The proper 
one to use depends large- 
ly upon the shape and 
size of the work. If the 
piece is short it is gen- 
erally stood on end on 
the anvil and the upper 
end is struck with a hammer (Fig. 94). Pieces small in 

1 As the sides bulge out somewhat when the corners are 
flattened. 




DRAWING DOWN AND UPSETTING 



65 



cross section relative to their length as a piece of f" 
round 8" or 12" long, which is to be upset on the end, 
should be held flat on the anvil by the tongs, so that 
the end of the piece to be upset projects over the edge 
about Y i where it can be struck a sharp blow with the 
hammer. By resting the piece on the face of the anvil, 
the tendency to bend is greatly lessened. The handle 
of the tongs should be 
pressed tightly against 
the left leg, to prevent a 
backward movement of 
the work to increase the 
efficiency of the blows. 
Pieces of larger size are 
upset by being bumped 
repeatedly upon the face 
of the anvil (Fig. 95) or 
upon a plate of cast iron 
set in the floor along- 
side of the anvil. An- 
other way is to lay the 
piece upon the anvil 
face or swing it in a 
chain, hold the end with 
both hands and strike the other end with a sledge or a 




Fig. 95 




Fie. 96 



swinging monkey (Fig. 96). Many heats are often re- 
quired to jump up a moderate mass of metal, and the 



66 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

result is that the dimensions are not very exact. The 
upset metal, in spite of much care in localizing the 
heat to the place wanted, is unequal and without sharp 
shoulders; hence to allow for drawing back to the desired 
form and size considerably more must be upset than is 
needed. 

Upsetting tends to separate the fibers of the metal. 
It is therefore necessary that the work be done at a 
welding heat. 

Pieces of any length will tend to bend when being 
upset and should be straightened as soon as a bend 
starts, because additional blows will simply bend the 
stock more and produce no upsetting. 

The blows must be heavy enough to work the 
metal the entire distance that is to be upset, in 
order that the section may remain uniform through- 
out. If it is found that the ends are spreading 
faster than the center of the stock, they can be so 
cooled that when struck with the hammer they will 
remain unchanged while the hot middle part is 
worked. This can be repeated till the piece has 
become uniform in section. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

Describe the position of the smith at the anvil. How should 
the hammer be held? How many ways of striking with a sledge 
are there? Describe each. How is the hammer held for light, 
finishing blows? What is drawing out? What is upsetting? 
How should a round piece be drawn down? If in working a 
square piece it gets diamond shape, how can it be made square 
again? When and how is the pene of the hammer used in draw- 
ing out? What is the action of the pene? When is the horn of 
the anvu used? Why? What effect has the crown on the anvil 
face in drawing out? When do we use the flat face of the hammer? 
Describe drawing down a square bar. A rectangular bar. How 
do you change from a rectangle to a square and vice versa? How 



DRAWING DOWN AND UPSETTING 67 

many sides need be hit with the hammer in drawing down a 
square? How are short pieces upset? Long, heavy ones? Long, 
light ones? If- the ends upset faster than the middle, what can 
be done to work the middle up? How heavy a blow is needed 
in upsetting? What is a swinging monkey? Will the metal 
upset evenly? 



CHAPTER VI 



BENDING AND TWISTING 




Bending and twisting are very important, but com- 
paratively simple. 

Curves and rings of light section are easily bent over 
the horn or round edge of the anvil, or around a suitable 
mandrel. With heavy sections bending blocks are neces- 
sary. It is easier to bend bar iron flatwise than edge- 
wise. Along the center of the bar 
(a-a) (Fig. 97) or the neutral axis, 
as it is called, the bending is 
performed without stretching or 
shortening the fibers, but on the 
convex side of this neutral axis all the fibers are stretched. 
The greater the distance is from (a-a), the greater the 
extension. Again, all the fibers on the concave side are 
shortened or compressed and the greater the distance, 
the greater the compression; therefore, the greater the 
distance (b) the more the work that must be done in 
the extension and compression. Also the metal tends 
to wrinkle or buckle and must be kept straight by 
hammering. 

Flat Bend. — Bending a piece of iron the flat way to 
some angle is the most simple case of bending. Suppose 
a piece of rectangular iron is to be. bent to a right angle, 
the corner (a) (Fig. 99) to be left rounded. The iron is 
heated to a bright red heat at the place where the bend 
is to be made, rested on the face of the anvil with the 



BENDING AND TWISTING 



69 




Fig. 98 



heated place over the round edge (Fig. 98), and the pro- 
jecting edge hit with the hammer at (6) and (c) (Figs. 
98-99), till the piece is brought to the desired angle as 
shown by the 
dotted lines. 1 It 
is then trued up 
on the face of the 
anvil. The piece 
can often be bent 
more easily if a 
sledge is held as 
shown in Fig. 98. 
Bending to "U" 
is done by heat- 
ing the piece at the place where bending is desired and 
the portion. that will be taken up in the bend, placing 
the piece with the center of the heated portion over 
that part of the horn where the diameter is about the 
same as the diameter of the bend desired, and striking 

the free end until 
it is bent to a right 
angle as shown in 
Fig. 101. End (a) 
is grasped in the 
tongs and (6) bent 
in a similar way. 
The piece is next 
placed on the face 
of the anvil and struck at (c). If one end should be 
slightly longer than the other, stand the longer end on 




Fig. 99 



1 After the piece has been bent to an angle of 110° to 120° it is 
often easier to finish the bend with less danger of injuring the piece 
by holding and striking, as shown at (a) in Fig. 100. If one leg is 
a little long, it can be shortened by making the bend sharper as 
shown at (b) in Fig. 100. 



70 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




Fig. 100 



the face of the anvil as at (a) in Fig. 102 and strike as 
indicated by the arrow. 

Ring Bending. — After the proper amount of stock 

has been cut off, 1 about 
half its length is heated 
to a dark red and placed 
over the horn of the 
anvil, as in Fig. 102, 
and bent down by 
being struck in the 
direction of the arrow. 
The bending is con- 
tinued by advancing 
the piece across the 
horn and striking as before. This process is continued 
until about one-half of the piece is bent; then the 
other end is heated and bent similarly. When bending 
a piece to form a ring or similar shape, never strike 
directly over the horn but a little in advance of the sup- 
port, otherwise . c 

the stock will be 
marred or ham- 
mered out of shape. 
If the ring is to be 
welded, the ends 
will have to be 
scarfed as explain- 
ed in the chapter 
on Welding. If it 
is to be unwelded but with ends flush as (a) in Fig. 
103, each end will have to be beveled as at (b) in Fig. 
103, by an amount determined by practice. 

Eye Bending. — If an eye like (a) (Fig. 104) is wanted, 
the length of the stock necessary to form the eye is de- 

1 See calculations for ring, Chapter XVI. 




Fig. 101 



BENDING AND TWISTING 



71 



termined. Then the piece is heated at a point as 
described above and shown at (b) (Fig. 104). The piece 
is next heated at the end and placed over the horn and 




Fig. 102 




/* a 



Fie. 103 



bent, as shown at (c) and (d), in much the same way as 
was the ring (Fig. 102). The eye is then closed by bring- 
ing down the end, to form as shown at (a), and by hold- 
ing and striking as at (a) and 
(6) (Fig. 105). To close the 
eye in properly it may be 
necessary to place the piece 
in positions (a) and (b) two 
or three times and to make 
the center line of the stem 
pass through the center of the eye (a) (Fig 104), and 
likewise to round the eye it may be necessary to place 
the piece over the 
horn as shown at (c) 
(Fig. 105). 

Hook. — A hook is 
bent somewhat simi- 
larly. It is bent at 
right angles (b) (Fig. 
104), placed over the horn (a 




Fig. 104 



(Fig. 106), and with fur- 
ther blows carried around to the position indicated by 



72 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



the dotted line. The bend in the end of the hook is 
produced over the edge of the anvil (6) (Fig. 106). 
Edge Bend with Square Forged Corner. — This is an 

especially diffi- 
cult piece to 
make without 
having cracks 
form as shown 
at (a) (Fig. 107). 
The stock is full- 
ered 1 and drawn 
down as shown 
at (6) in Fig. 107, 
the projection shown at (c) left where the corner is to be, 
is heated almost to a white heat, and bent over the 
round part of the anvil face to an angle of 110° or 120° 
(Fig. 108). It will be well to have a helper hold a 




Fig. 105 




Fig. 106 

sledge on the piece so that the edge of the sledge is 
directly over the edge of the anvil. The bending can be 
done by placing the work in the vise, but this is not 
recommended as the stock is likely to be cut. The 
stock is reheated at the bend by being placed in the fire 

1 See Chapter VIII for description of fullering. 



BENDING AND TWISTING 



73 



as in Fig. 109, and the corner is worked up square by 
a series of blows given as follows: The work is placed 
over the anvil, as in Fig. 108, but so that the inside of 




Fig. 107 

the bend is not allowed to touch the corner of the anvil; 
struck as indicated by the arrow; turned, end for end, 
and struck again; placed on the face of the anvil as 
(a) in Fig. 108; and struck on the ends. These blows 
are to be repeated, with occasionally a blow to bring 

the piece nearer to a 
right angle, until a sharp 
corner is made on the 
outside and the piece is 
nearly at a right angle. 
The corner can now be 
finished by standing the 
piece on end and strik- 
ing as indicated by the 
arrow in Fig. 110 and 
finally closing in to the 
exact right angle. In all this work the corner must be 
kept at a good heat; the angle must be more than 90° 
at all times with a small fillet on the inside. Never let 
it get into the position shown at (d) (Fig. 
107) or the metal will lap over and pro- 
duce a crack as at (a), or a cold shut as at 
(e). The piece should be finished all over 
with a flatter. A bend with a square 
corner as shown at (a) (Fig. 107) can be forged without 
being fullered and drawn clown. All other operations 




Fig. 108 




Fig. 109 



74 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




Fig. 110 



are the same as described above; but the process is 

more difficult. 

Bending Plates. — In bending large work to various 

outlines many devices are 
used, such as cast iron 
templates, or bending 
blocks. Their design and 
contruction are a matter 
of cost. When only a few 
simple pieces are to be 
bent the cost of even a 
simple block would be 
prohibitive, but when 
many pieces are wanted 

all alike, elaborate blocks may be made. Fig. Ill shows 

a block for bending flat bars. It can be made for any 

radius or even for differently shaped curves, and the 

working edge (a) can be made with a T or L section; 

so that "shapes" also can be bent. The block consists of 

a heavy cast-iron plate of the desired shape with a 

means suitable for fastening it to a bench or leveling 

block. The end of the 

piece to be bent is 

held in the groove (a) 

by the clips (b), which 

are fastened to the 

plate by bolts or pins 

in some of the holes 




Fig. Ill 



and by the pin (c), slipped 
through the slots in (6). As the piece is bent more 
clips are added, which process holds it to the block 
until the required amount of the piece is bent to the 
required shape. Fig. 112 shows a bending block for 
general work, fitted with a screw. Upon this block 
bars can be straightened or bent at most any shape. 
The block is pierced with numerous circular and slotted 



BENDING AND TWISTING 75 

holes, which receive pins to form the necessary supports 
for the piece in bending. At (a) is a block securely 
fastened to the plate, in which is a thread to move 
the screw (6) in or out to put pres- 
sure on the work. In operation the 
plate is very simple. Pins are placed 
in the holes, the piece is forced be- 
tween them, and is bent to the desired 
shape. The screw is useful in straight- 
ening stock and is used as follows: „ 
Pins are placed in holes (c), the 



• r. — I 






D 




r—i 




i :"::,) 


L__) 


oO 


u.° 


a 




6 


o 
o'° 


1 — 1 


■m 





CT3 


i — > 


C=3 


o 


c 

rv 


n 




era 


'0° 


o 

1 — 1 
o 






o 


°Q 


CZi 


a 




■ 


a 


C—l 




piece to be straightened placed so 

that it bears against these pins, with 

the bowed side to the screw, and 

Fig. 112 
pressure applied through the screw 

till the piece is straight. Numerous devices for bending 
special forms can be made and attached to this form of 
plate. 

Twisting. — To make the twist as shown in Fig. 113, 
lay off the portion to be twisted and lightly center 
punch at each end. If the stock is light enough to be 
twisted without heating, place it in a vise with one punch 

mark just above the jaws, the 
rest of the stock extending 
above. Then with a wrench that 
fits tightly, grasp the stock just 
above the second punch mark and give the piece the de- 
sired number of turns. If the left hand is used to back 
up the wrench it aids in keeping the stock straight. 
When the stock is large and needs heating the procedure 
is the same. The stock must be heated uniformly and 
the work performed quickly, or the cold vise and wrench 
will extract heat from the stock near the place where 
it is held, and results in an uneven twist, since the 
hotter portion will turn more easily, giving a shorter 



76 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

twist. It is also hard to keep the piece from bending 
as the wrench cannot always be backed up by the left 
hand owing to the heat. When the piece comes out 
crooked it can be straightened without marring by 
heating it to a dull red, and hammering it between two 
hardwood boards. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

How are curves and rings bent? What should be used for heavy 
stock? What is the neutral axis? How is the metal disposed of 
that is bulged out by compressing in making a bend? Describe 
how to make a flat bend. Describe bending to a U. How is a 
ring bent? Why should the piece never be struck directly over the 
horn? Why is the piece first bent to a right angle in making an 
eye bend? In the edge bend, why is it easier to make the piece by 
the first method described? Why must the inside corner be kept 
away from the edge of the anvil after it is first bent? Why in 
making the edge bend, must the piece always be kept at an angle 
greater than a right angle till the corner has been forged sharp? 
What are bending plates? When is it profitable to use them? De- 
scribe how they are used. Describe the operation of twisting. Why 
must one work fast when twisting a piece of hot iron? Why can 
a piece of cold iron be twisted more evenly than hot? 



CHAPTER VII 



SPLITTING, PUNCHING, AND RIVETING 
SPLITTING 

Splitting is done by hand with an ordinary hand 
chisel, with a hack saw, and by power with a slitting 
shear or slitting saw. The methods of splitting by hand 
are the only ones which are described in this work. 

Splitting with the Hot Chisel. — The heated piece is 
placed on the cutting block (a) (Fig. 114), the chisel held 
by the smith on 
the place where 
the cut is to be 
made, and struck 
by the helper 
with the sledge till 
the stock is cut 
through. Unless 
the stock is very 
thick, it is well to 
cut through all 
the way from one 
side. The piece can be held on the hardie and the chisel 
on the stock directly above (6) (Fig. 114), but this is 
more difficult. Before stock is split, it 




Fig. 114 



a i 



is necessary to punch or to drill a small 

hole at the place that will be the end 

of the split. In Fig. 115 (a) shows the 

hole and the dotted line is where the piece is to be 

split. Light pieces are most easily split in a vise with 



78 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




an ordinary cold chisel, as shown in Fig. 116. The piece 
is set in the vise, so that the place selected for the split 
is flush with the top of the jaws, the 
cutting edge of the chisel being held 
on the top of the vise, and driven 
with the hammer against the work, 
so that the back jaw of the vise and 
the chisel act as shear blades to cut or 
split the stock. The method of 
splitting with a hack saw is the 
same as that of ripping a board 
held in a vise. With reference to 
Fig. 117, no further explanation is 
Fig. 116 necessary. 

PUNCHING 

Punching is an important operation in the forge shop, 
though the introduction of the drill press has lessened 
its use somewhat. There are 
many cases where the punch is 
desirable, as in punching eyes 
for hammer handles. There are 
both hand and power punches 
which will make holes of almost 
any section. 

Power Punch. — The operation 
of the power punch is very simple. 
The piece to be punched is held 
under the punch and a lever 
pressed down with the foot. This 
throws a clutch which starts 1§ ' 

the gears; the punch descends and penetrates the piece. 

Hand punches are commonly of two kinds. That 
shown in Fig. 118 is held in the left hand of the smith 
and driven into the stock with a hand hammer. That 




SPLITTING, PUNCHING, AND RIVETING 79 



shown in Fig. 55 is held by the handle in the right hand, 
similarly as the chisel in Fig. 114, and is driven into the 
work, with the sledge by a helper. 

The punch (Fig. 118) is used for small holes in thin 
iron. It is made from 

octagonal steel, eight or - 4 K=^=~ r~ ; r-r\*^ BB- 
ten inches long. The °^-» 

end is forged tapering to 

the same shape but slightly smaller on the end than 
the desired hole. The end should be perfectly flat and 
at right angle to the center line, as in Fig. 118. As the 
operation of punching is the same with either punch, a 
description of the use of one will answer. The iron 
should be heated to a bright red or almost a white heat, 
and laid flat on the face of the anvil, the punch placed 
in position and held to the work firmly with the hand, 
and driven a little over half through (a) (Fig. 119). 

This compresses the 
metal underneath the 
punch and either raises a 
slight bulge on the un- 
der side of the bar, or 
makes a darkened spot 
the shape of the end of 
the punch. The piece is 
now turned over and the 
lg ' punch placed on this 

bulged or dark spot (&) (Fig. 119). The punch is again 
driven about halfway through (c), and then the work is 
moved over the punch hole in the end of the anvil and 
the punch driven through. The slug is thus driven out 
and the hole (rf) results. The piece now has a hole 
through it, as shown at (e), but if the stock is narrow it 
likely will be bulged as shown at (/). This bulge must 
be hammered back to the original width of the bar, with- 




80 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

out making the hole elliptical by leaving the punch in 
the hole. In this operation, the punch must be changed 
from one side of the hole to the other, or the hole will 
be tapered the same as the punch. The punch must 
not be driven all the way through from one side, or the 
result will be a tapered hole and the stock will be bulged 
on the under side as shown at (g), which will make the 
work look rough, no matter how much one tries to 
remedy the defect by hammering the bulge back. On 
thick work, and especially on steel, the punch can be 
prevented from sticking by placing a little coal dust in 
the hole just after it is started. The punch must be 
dipped in water occasionally to cool the end, or it will 
soften and bulge and thus rivet itself in the hole as 
shown at (h), making it almost impossible to remove it. 

RIVETING 

Riveting is the joining together of two or more pieces 
of metal by another piece of metal called a rivet, — - 
which is inserted through holes in the pieces to be joined; 
after which the ends of the rivet are 
flattened down (as shown in Fig. 120) 
If to prevent its coming out. Rivets are 
designated by the shape of their heads 
as (Fig. 121); (a) round head, (b) con- 
ical head, (c) countersink, (d) pan head, etc. The conical 
head rivet has the least cross-sectional area to resist the 
strain, and the pan head the most. The joints are spoken 
of as lap or butt joints and as 
single, double, etc., according 
to the way the joints are made 
and to the number of rows of 
rivets. Fig. 122 shows a butt 
and Fig. 123 a lap joint. The distance between the 
centers of two rivets adjacent in a row is called the pitch. 





SPLITTING, PUNCHING, AND RIVETING 81 

The way in which a rivet is driven depends upon the 
purpose of the rivet. If it is to make a tight joint or 
seam, the pieces are brought together into their proper 
position. The rivet is heated to a 
full red heat, passed through the hole 
previouslj* punched or drilled, held 
in place by a dolly-bar 1 or rested on 
the anvil according to the nature of the work, and then 
driven with heavy blows to upset the stem and fill the 
hole. The head is afterward rounded to the shape de- 
sired. The quicker the riveting is done the more heat 
is left in it and hence the greater the amount of con- 
traction, after the riveting is finished, to draw the plates 
together. If the rivet is to fill the irregularities of a 
punched hole, it should, when heated, 
be as good a fit in the hole as pos- 
Fi §- 123 sible. 

If the rivet is to hold two pieces together like a pair 
of tongs, where there must be movement, the rivet is 
struck light blows which spread out the end to the de- 
sired shape but does not upset the stem. The heads of 
rivets are usually finished in a cupping tool (Fig. 57) , 

After the head has been 

hammered into shape, l^^ lllll l^ 

usually with the pene of 

the hammer, the cupping 

tool is placed over the 

rivet head and struck 

a few blows with the 

face of the hammer. Riveting on structural and boiler 

work is usually done with a pneumatic riveter. 

The effect which the taper in a punched hole has 

1 A dolly-bar is a heavy piece of iron 18" to 2' long, which is 
held against a rivet to act as an anvil so as to upset the rivet and 
form the head. 




82 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

upon a riveted joint depends upon the manner in 
which the plates are brought together. In Fig. 124 at 
(a) are two holes with the large end of the taper on the 
outside, and the effect is the same as a slight counter- 
sink, causing the rivet to draw the plates together. It is 
evident that this desirable method will make a tight 
joint. It has two drawbacks, however: punching from 
opposite sides is difficult; in making repairs it is hard 
to remove the old rivet without injury to the plates. 
At (6) are shown plates placed together with the large 
diameter of the holes inside. This is bad, since the 
tendency in driving the rivet will be to spread the 
plates apart. This rivet would also be hard to remove 
for repairs, (c) shows the plates both punched from 
one side. This will make it hard to drive the rivet 
and get a tight joint and the rivet will also be hard to 
remove from side (x). But it can be easily removed 
from side (y), if it is accessible. At (d) are shown cases 
where the rivets do not come fair. In these cases the 
rivets bend in driving and the result is that they do 
not fill the hole. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

What are the ordinary ways of splitting stock? Describe a hot 
chisel. How is it used? Why is the small hole needed at the end 
of the place where the split is to be? How are light pieces split 
in the vise? Why is punching better on some classes of work than 
drilling? Describe the method of punching a hole through a 
piece of iron. Why must the hole be punched from both sides? 
Why must the punch be left in the hole when the bulged sides are 
hammered back? Why must the punch be changed from one side 
to the other in hammering back the bulged sides? Why must the 
punch be dipped in water often while it is used? How is the punch 
prevented from sticking in deep holes? What will happen if the 
end of the punch is allowed to get soft? What is riveting? What 
is a rivet? How are rivets named? Give the names. What is 
meant by pitch, double riveting, butt and lap joints? What is a 



SPLITTING, PUNCHING, AND RIVETING 83 

dolly-bar? Why should riveting be done hot when a tight joint 
is to be made? Why are light hammer blows used when a pair of 
tongs are riveted? Why is a cupping tool used? What is the effect 
if the large diameters of punched holes are on the outsides? on 
the insides? one inside and one outside? If the holes do not come 
fair? 



CHAPTER VIII 



THE USES OF BLACKSMITHS' TOOLS 
FULLERING 

The fullers (Figs. 66-67) are used to change the direc- 
tion of the fibers of iron (without cutting) where it is to 
be reduced in section, or to widen stock. Fig. 125 (a) 
shows the use of the top fuller alone in making a de- 
pression in a piece of 
tool steel preparatory 
to making a lathe 
tool. The steel is held 
on the face of the anvil 
and the fuller is held 
on the steel at the 
proper place, while the 
helper strikes the ful- 
ler with a sledge which 
causes it to sink into 
the steel. Fig. 125 (6) 




Fig. 125 



shows the use of both the top and bottom fuller in 
position for forming shoulders. In this case the ends 
are to remain at their original size and the part (c) 
between the fuller marks is to be reduced and rounded. 
The operation is as follows: place the bottom fuller in 
the hardie hole and heat the iron to a good red heat; 
hold it on the fuller at the place where the shoulder is 
to be (the top fuller is now held on the iron directly 
over and parallel to the bottom fuller) x and strike the 

1 Caution: Hold the top fuller so that it will be parallel in 
both planes with the bottom one. 



THE USES OF BLACKSMITHS' TOOLS 



85 




top fuller with a sledge. The stock must be turned 
repeatedly from one side to the other in order to have 
the two fuller marks the same depths: the two fullers 
are scarcely ever of 
exactly the same ra- 
dius, and the sharper 
one cuts the faster. 
By the turning of the 
piece each side is 
brought for an equal 
time into contact with 
the sharper fuller. 
Fig. 126 shows another 
use of the fuller; namely, that of spreading a piece of 
iron or steel. For this use the fuller is held in an in- 
clined position and driven with a sledge, as indicated 
by the arrows, which forces the metal as shown in the 
figure. Fig. 126 illustrates the use of the fuller for 
both shouldering and spreading. When 
forging a piece to shape a block of 
proper length is taken and first ful- 
lered with the top fuller, as shown 
at (a) in Fig. 125, the piece results as shown in Fig. 127. 
The fuller is next applied as shown in Fig. 126. 



Fig. 126 



Fig. 127 



SWAGES 

Swages shown in Figs. 61 and 62 are used for finishing 
work. Swages for round work may be semicircular, as 
(a) Fig. 128, or V-shaped, as (6) in Fig. 
128. The semicircular swage makes the 
neater, more nearly circular job, but is 
more apt to forge the work hollow as 
explained under drawing out, page 63, 
Chapter V. For this reason the circular form is used 
on small work and for finishing; while on large work 




Fig. 128 



86 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

and under the power hammer, the V-form is used to 
bring the work down to size, which is then finished in 
the semicircular swage. The spring swage (Fig. 63) is 
used on light work when the hand hammer alone is 
used, as the top swage guides itself so that the smith, 
holding the work in one hand and the hammer in the 
other, is enabled to use the swage without the aid of 
a helper. The spring swage is also used under the 
power hammer, for the same reason. The holes of 
circular swages are always made to a larger radius than 
the radius of the work; also they are never half-circles. 
On small sizes they are about two-thirds of a semi- 
circle and on large sizes less. This is necessary so that 
the hole between the two swages when placed together 
will be oval, and thus prevents the swages from wedging 
upon the work. 

The V-shaped swages are, as stated before, for drawing- 
down work, while the round are for finishing, and should 
not be used except for the last finishing touches. A 
novice will find the swage a rather hard tool to use. He 
usually can get better work with his hand hammer. 

Swage-blocks (Fig. 31) should be constructed so that 
the holes (a) passing through them are true circles or 
squares and the sides parallel the full length of the hole. 
The recesses (6) should be less than semicircles, as in 
the case of hand swages. The slots 
at (c) should be parallel throughout 
their length but should taper in depth, 
to be narrowest at the bottom. 

Operations. — The bottom swage is 
placed in the hardie hole, the work 

laid in the groove, the top swage 
Fig. 129 . 

placed on the work directly over the 

bottom swage and struck light rapid blows by the helper 

using the sledge, while the smith moves the piece back- 





THE USES OF BLACKSMITHS' TOOLS 87 

wards and forwards and revolves it at each blow. Care 

must be taken that the grooves always remain parallel, 

and that the work never is placed in 

swages where the radius of the 

grooves is not larger than the work. 

The grooves on the edges of the 

swage-blocks are used as bottom 

Fi°\ 130 
swages. The holes are for various 

purposes; such as to true up stock by passing it through 

them and shaping and turning edges as in Fig. 129, and 

to bend pipe (Fig. 130). 

FLATTER 

The Flatter (Fig. 59) is used to finish flat surfaces, just 
as swages are used to finish round surfaces. The anvil 
takes the place of the bottom swage as a bottom flatter. 
Its use and that of the set hammer are so nearly the 
same, that the description to be given for the set hammer 
will answer for both. 

SET HAMMER 

The Set Hammer (Fig. 58) is used to set down square 
shoulders on work similarly to the way the fuller is used 
for rounded corners. It is also used to forge pieces that 
cannot be reached with the hand hammer, and often in 
place of a flatter. 

Fig. 131 shows the use of the set hammer on setting 
down stock so as to leave the stem-reinforcing shoulder. 
The stock was originally all of the same thickness. The 
set hammer is placed on the piece so that its edge is in 
line with the side of the stem, and given a blow with the 
sledge. It is then moved to the other side of the stem 
and given another blow. The piece is then held at 
the place indicated by the arrow (a) and the end of the 
stem is set down. At (6) Fig. 131 is shown the way the 
head is spread and narrowed by use of the set hammer. 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




Fig. 131 



These two operations must be alternated till the head 
is as desired. 

Heading Tool. — Heading tools are of two types, the 

hand heading tool (Fig. 
72) and the floor head- 
ing tool (Fig. 132). They 
are used to shape and 
finish heads on bolts and 
similar articles, or collars 
on shafts. 

The hand tool is used 
as follows: a sufficient 
amount of metal is jumped 
up at the desired position ; 
say, at the end of the stem as in making a bolt; 
heated to a red or almost white heat; placed in the 
tool (Fig. 133); and struck a few good blows with a 
hand hammer or sledge (according to the size of the 
work), to flatten out the head (a) and work the under 
side to a flat face with a sharp corner (6). After one 
or two blows are struck the stock should 
be removed from the tool and examined 
to see whether the stem and the head 
are concentric. If they are not, the head 
can be shifted by striking it in the direc- 
tion it should be moved as indicated by 
the arrow at (c). Then the piece is re- 
moved from the tool and brought to 
shape on the face of the anvil (Fig. 134). 
The head as it leaves the heading tool is 
round, as shown at (a); it is struck a 
good hard blow, indicated by the arrow, lg ' 

to flatten its two faces, as shown at (b). It is then 
rolled over to the position (c) and struck, as shown by 
the arrow. This leaves it square, as at (d). When it 




THE USES OF BLACKSMITHS' TOOLS 



89 




Fig. 133 



is being shaped (Fig. 134) the head probably will be- 
come too thick and the other dimensions too small. 
In this case the piece must be placed in the tool and 
hammered to the cor- 
rect dimensions. The 
blows that shape the 
head must be heavy 
enough to work the 
entire head or it will 
become cupped (Fig. 
135). When the tool is 
placed over the hardie 
hole, care must be taken that the stem of the piece which 
is being worked does not touch the anvil as at (d) (Fig. 
133), or the stem will be injured. 

The Floor Heading Tool (Fig. 132) consists of a base 
(e) and a casting (g) connected by two uprights (/). 

The upper casting is constructed to receive a har- 
dened steel die (c) which can be changed for each di- 
ameter of stem desired and thus the tool is adapted to 
a wide range of work. At (a) is a lever on which the end 
of the stem rests when the head is upset. It is also 

used for forcing the piece 
out of the tool. 

This tool is a combi- 
nation upsetting and 
heading tool. The piece 
(a), which can be set at 
any desired position in 
the space (6), is placed 
so that the distance from 
the top of the die (c) to 
the top face of (a) is the length of the required bolt. 
The stock must be cut just the right length (determined 
by calculations). The portion that will project above 




Fig. 134 




90 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

the tool is heated to a white heat. The stock is placed 
in the tool, the heated portion up, and is given heavy 
blows with hammer or sledge, which will upset and head 
the piece at the same time. After the second 
or third blow it should be examined to see 
if the head is concentric with the stem, and 
if not, it should be made so, as described 
above. Care must be taken to keep the 
stem below the die straight, and not to let the end that 
rests on (a) become burred or it will become too large to 
pass through the die. The piece can be removed by 
striking the lever (a). 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

Describe a fuller and tell what it is used for. What is the action 
of a fuller in spreading stock? Describe a swage and tell its use. 
What are circular swages used for? What are V-shaped ones for? 
Why are circular swages made larger than the work to be finished 
in them? Why are they always less than a half-circle? What is 
a spring swage and what is its use? Describe swage-blocks and tell 
their use. Describe the operation of using a swage. What is a 
flatter? Give some of its uses. What is a set hammer? Give its 
uses. What is a heading tool? What is it used for? How many 
kinds of heading tools are there? What is the advantage of the 
floor heading tool? How can the head be moved in case it is 
not concentric with the stem. 



CHAPTER IX 



HAND WELDING 



We have learned the process of shaping iron and are 
prepared to take up the study of joining two or more of 
these pieces or the ends of a piece by the process of 
welding. 

Welding. — ■ Welding consists of heating to a welding 
heat (or nearly to the point of fusion) two or more pieces 
of iron or steel, 1 at the places where the joint is to be 
made, and uniting them by pressure or by quick sharp 
hammer blows. 

The exact temperature of the welding heat in wrought 
iron and steel is not known, but when it is reached, 
wrought iron and steel become pasty, so that they 
will stick to similarly heated pieces when placed in 
contact. 

Heated beyond this point, the iron will burn, giving off 
scintillating sparks. 2 When wrought iron has reached 
the welding heat it has a dazzling white appearance, and 
when exposed to the air it makes a slight hissing noise 
and gives off the bright sparks of burning iron. Soft 
steel becomes grayish white, and tool steel, bright 
yellow. As stated above, the metal becomes waxlike or 
semifluid, a condition in which the particles of the 
separate pieces come into the same close contact as those 

1 The two ends of a single piece bent to form a ring or chain 
link, etc., are here considered as two pieces. 

2 Often small pieces of iron or scale get into the fire and burn, 
giving off scintillating sparks, which is misleading to the smith. 
This can and should be avoided by keeping the fire clean and deep. 



92 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

of the solid bar, as they are welded or hammered to- 
gether. Only such metals can be welded as gradually 
become softer and softer with increase of heat or those 
that change slowly from the solid to the liquid state; 
the greater the range of this semifluid temperature, the 
more easy is the process of welding. Metals that remain 
hard up to the crumbling or melting point cannot be 
welded. 

The difficulty in welding is to heat the metal properly 
and to keep it clean and free from scale. It is absolutely 
necessary that the fire be kept clean, and that its depth be 
great enough to prevent, as far as possible, oxidation of 
the metal which results in a dirty heat (that is, the 
metal will have cinders and dirt adhering to it which 
will prevent the particles of metal from coming in con- 
tact so as to join or weld). Depressions that will pocket 
air between the pieces will have like effect. The pieces 
that are to be welded are usually "up set," or enlarged 
at the places where they are to join, to allow for un- 
avoidable drawing out in the making of the weld and in 
the subsequent hammering (hammer refining) to refine 
the grain (which is carried on until the pieces are at a 
low red heat). 

Hammer Refining. — The object of this after-hammer- 
ing is to break up the coarse crystals that are formed by 
the high temperature, which can be done by hammering 
or finishing at a dull red temperature, thereby giving 
the finished piece a fine strong grain. This finishing to 
produce the fine grain is called "hammer refining." 
Care in hammer-refining and proper welding will keep 
the metal at and close to the weld nearly as strong as 
the orginal bar. But there will nearly always be a point 
not far from the weld that has been overheated and has 
not been hammer refined which will remain a weak 
place in the work. 



HAND WELDING 93 

Fluxes. — The higher the iron is heated the easier it 
will take up oxygen and form scale. Scale will prevent 
a weld whether formed in the fire or in the time con- 
sumed in taking the pieces from the fire and placing 
them together. At the temperature of welding scale is 
formed very rapidly, so a flux is used to prevent its 
formation or to dissolve it. When irons of different 
composition are to be welded together, a flux is needed 
to prevent the metal that reaches its welding temperature 
first from oxidizing. This flux will melt and cover the 
parts to be welded, preventing the formation of scale 
and dissolving that already formed. When the pieces 
are placed together and hammered this flux is forced out 
and the pieces are allowed to join. The fluxes generally 
used are sand, borax, or a mixture of borax and some 
substance, as sal ammoniac. Most all special welding 
compounds have borax as their base. Sand makes a 
good flux for wrought iron but is of little use with steel. 
It acts by uniting with the oxide to form a fusible 
silicate. When steel is being welded, borax or a mixture 
of borax and sal ammoniac is to be preferred. With this 
flux, iron scale dissolves at a comparatively low tem- 
perature and in this fluid condition can be squeezed out 
of the way; while if the flux were not used, the iron would 
have to be subjected to a higher heat to melt the scale. 
With ordinary wrought iron a heat that will melt the 
scale can easily be reached without the use of a flux, 
but with certain machine steel and all tool steel a tem- 
perature high enough to melt the oxide would burn the 
steel. 

Borax contains water which should be driven off. This 
dehydrated borax forms what is called borax glass, which 
when pulverized makes an excellent flux. Sal ammoniac 
added to borax in the proportion of 1 part sal ammoniac 
to 4 parts of borax will act better than borax alone, es- 



94 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

pecially on tool steel. The flux acts merely to protect 
the surfaces from oxidation and to dissolve the scale, 
therefore it must not be imagined that it acts in any 
way like a cement or that welds cannot be made without 
its use, for with due care to prevent the dirt and oxide 
they can. 

The Procedure. — The process of welding is very sim- 
ple, but it is one to which too much care cannot be given. 
As previously stated the fire must be clean and deep, 
for unless the fire is exactly right the pieces cannot be 
heated sufficiently or kept free from dirt and scale. 
If the metal is insufficiently heated or is dirty (covered 
with scale or slag) no amount of hammering will cause the 
pieces to join. Again, if the iron is heated too hot, it 
will burn and become useless, for burned iron will not 
weld. In welding, everything must be in readiness; the 
anvil must be clean and nothing in the way, and the 
hammer laid in a convenient place and in correct position 
to deliver the blow. The tongs should fit the work 
tightly and be so held that no changes will be neces- 
sary to place the pieces in proper contact. The iron is 
heated slowly 1 at first until it is at a uniform tempera- 
ture throughout and then the blast is increased until 
the welding temperature is reached, then it is taken 
from the fire and the oxide dissolved off. usually by dip- 
ping the metals in a flux and returned to the fire for an 
instant. 

When the pieces are at the proper heat one must work 
rapidly: the blast is shut off (when power blower is 
used); the pieces are taken from the fire, given a sharp 

1 If it is heated too rapidly the outside will be at a welding 
temperature while the interior remains too cold. If it is taken 
from the fire in this condition it will not weld, because the surface 
will be cooled below and the welding point by transfer of heat to 
the interior and by radiation to the air. 



HAND WELDING 



95 



rap on the edge of the forge or anvil horn to knock off 
the dirt, placed in position, and hammered rapidly till 
all parts are stuck. After the first blow which joins the 
pieces the thin parts should next be struck to complete 
the weld, for they lose their heat more rapidly than the 
thick. If the pieces do not stick at the first or second 
blow do not continue hammering, as it will only get 
them out of shape. When two pieces are at a proper 
welding heat they will stick when touched together. 

CASES OF WELDING 

Lap Weld. — The easiest weld to make is that where 
the two ends of a single piece are to be welded together 
to form a chain link, ring, or the like. This is a lap weld, 
so called since the ends are lapped over each other. 

Making a Chain Link. — The first step is to bend the 
iron to a "Li- 
shaped piece, 
care being taken 
to. make the legs 
of even length. 
The piece is 
held in the tongs 
at the bend of 
theU. The two 
ends are heated 
to a good red and scarfed. The scarf is the rough- 
ened bevel made where the pieces lap. It is made by 
placing the stock on the end of the anvil face where 
it joins the cutting block (a) (Fig. 136) and by giving 
it one blow. The piece is then moved towards the horn 
a slight distance and struck another blow. This is con- 
tinued until the corner is reached. Each blow must 
be enough heavier than the last so that a bevel will be 
produced. These blows will make a series of little steps 




Fig. 136 



96 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




14--^. 



Fig. 137 



and draw the piece down to a point (a) (Fig. 137). The 
piece is now turned over and the operation repeated on 
the other leg. Then it is placed over the small part of 

the horn and bent as 
shown at (6) and (c), 
care being taken to 
' keep the space some- 
what angular rather 
than round as at the 
other end. This angle should be as sharp as possible 
and yet fit over the horn without spreading. The points 
of the scarfs should project slightly. The reason for 
keeping this end angular can readily be seen from Fig. 
138. In each case the portion below the line must be 
exposed to the welding heat. At (a) more stock is below 
the line: therefore more is liable to injury. The lapped 
portion of the link is now placed in the fire and a weld- 
ing heat taken. If the stock is Norway iron, no flux need 
be used, but if of some inferior grade the ends should be 
dipped in the flux as soon as it is a bright red and then 
placed in the fire till at the point of 
fusion or till a few sparks of burning 
iron appear. The smith, hammer in 
hand, should shut off the blast, re- 
move the piece to the face of the 
anvil, strike a sharp blow on each side of the weld as at 
(6) and immediately place it over the horn as at (c), 
so as to weld the end. It is again removed to the face 
of the anvil and held as shown at (d) and hammered as 
indicated by the arrow so as to stick and finish the in- 
side. With rapid work this can all be clone with one 
heat. A beginner will probably need two or three; as 
he should reheat just as soon as there is tendency not 
to weld, or the iron has cooled below a white heat, 
for additional hammering will only reduce or thin the 




HAND WELDING 



97 




stock and make a weak weld. The blows struck on the 
sides when the piece is first removed from the fire should 
be as heavy as the piece will stand without flattening 
the stock. 

A second link is made up in the same manner, and 
these are joined by a third link scarfed and bent 
as were the first two; only before being closed 
the two finished links are slipped on as in Fig. 
139. The third link is then welded as above 
described. This will be found much harder, 
however, as the finished links will insist on lg " 
getting in the way. To make a chain, sections of 
three links should be made up and then each section 
joined by an additional link. The fire must be kept clean 

and deep and the pieces 
when heating well cov- 
ered with coke. The links 
should be turned often 
so that both sides will 
be heated evenly. An- 
other way to make the 
scarf is to place the link 
on the face of the anvil 
after it has been bent to the U-shape and bevel it with 
the pene of the hammer, as in Fig. 140. 1 

Collar. — The collar presents a lap weld with flat 
stock. The length of the lap should be about one and 
a half times the thickness of the stock. The scarf should 
be slightly curved in both 
directions, as shown in 
Fig. 141 to make the 
center of the scarf the lg " 

highest point. In this way a pocket that would hold slag 
or air is avoided. In making the scarf the ends are upset 

1 The author is partial to this method. 




Fig. 140 



98 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




Fig. 142 



a little. The piece is then placed on the anvil and beveled 
as shown at (a) Fig. 142, and finished by rounding with the 
pene as at (b). It must be remembered that the scarfs 

are to be made on op- 
posite sides of the stock. 
Fig. 143 shows the ring 
bent ready for welding. 
The piece is heated (as 
in welding a chain link) 
and all precautions taken 
to keep the fire clean 
and deep. - Care must 
be taken to heat the 
piece slowly so that it will be heated through. The 
piece should be welded over the horn and special atten- 
tion given to the thin edge at the ends of the lap, for 
they cool very rapidly. 

Washer or Flat Ring. — Fig. 144 shows the stock 
scarfed and ready to bend. It is up- 
set at the ends and at the same time 
beveled to an angle of from twenty 
to thirty degrees. At the first end, the 
scarf (which is made with the pene of 
the hammer) , is almost full stock thick- 
ness on the edge that is to be the 
inside of the washer and tapers to the 
outside, the width of the scarf increasing from about f" 
at the inside corner to about 1" on the outside edge. On 

the second end, the 
scarf is on the oppo- 
site side of the piece 
and the full stock 




Fie. 143 



Fig. 144 



thickness is on the side that is to be the outside of 
the washer. The wide part of the scarf is also on this 
edge. The scarf should be rounded in the middle to allow 



HAND WELDING 



99 



the escape of slag, air, etc. A great deal of care must 
be taken when the stock is bent, to keep it at a red or 
almost white heat, lest the outside edge crack as in Fig. 
145, due to the stretching. The piece is 
heated for the weld with the same care as 
described for the other welds. The weld- 
ing is done on the face of the anvil, the thin lg ' 
edges being taken care of first. After the weld has been 
made the piece is reheated and placed over the horn to 
true the outside edge. In all of these welds the blows 
are regulated to the size of the stock. 

TWO-PIECE WELDING 

Bolt Head. — This two-piece weld is about as easy as 
a single-piece weld, for it is essentially one piece at the 

time of welding. 
The stem is up- 
set slightly, (a) 
(Fig. 146). The 
upset part should 
be about the 
same diameter 
throughout and 
the distance (a) 
a little longer than the collar that is to be welded on. 
The collar is made from stock of the proper size or it 
can be drawn down from larger. In this case assume 
it is to be for the head of a small 
bolt and that |" round stock is to be 
used for the collar. Draw down square 
a portion long enough to reach around 
the upset part of the stem, and scarf Fig. 147 

or taper the end as shown at (6). Bend this squared 
portion as in (c) to fit tightly around the upset portion 
of (a), and cut off as indicated by the dotted line. 




Fig. 146 




100 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




ties* 



Fig. 148 



Close in the end and place the collar on the stem as at 
(d). Bring all up to a welding heat, heating slowly to 
bring the stem to a proper temperature without burning 

the ring; place 
them on the face 
of the anvil and 
weld ; and finish 
the rough-looking, 
irregular top and 
bottom of the 
head, by taking 
another welding 
heat and dropping the bolt in a heading tool and weld- 
ing these irregular parts into the head. The head is 
now in condition to be shaped as desired. Collars (Fig. 
147) are welded in a similar manner and finished in a 
collar' swage (Fig. 65). This weld is difficult as it re- 
quires considerable skill to get the heat at the proper 
place, without burning the ends of the shaft. 

Split Welds. — Thin pieces that require welding, even 
though they may be of the proper temperature while in 
the fire, cool off so rapidly that by the time they can 
be placed on the anvil they are too cool to weld. This 
difficulty can be overcome greatly, as follows: split the 
pieces for about §", bend up one part and bend down 
the other, scarf each split part properly as for a lap 
weld (a) (Fig. 148), place 
the pieces together and close 
down the ends as in (6). 
The joined pieces can now 
be heated as a single piece 
and placed on the face of the anvil and welded; a flux 
should be used to keep the ends from burning. This 
method, is used also in welding spring steel. Fig. 149 
shows another type of split weld used on heavy stock. 




Fig. 149 



HAND WELDING 



101 




Fie. 150 



The ends of each piece are upset. One end is scarfed or 
pointed as at (a) with the side of the bar bulged just 
back of the joint, while the other end is split and 
sharpened as at (b). 
The lips (c) must be 
longer than the point 
of (a) so that they will 
extend well over the 
bulge. Piece (a) is 
driven into (b) and the 
lips (c-c) closed down over the bulge in (a) to keep the 
pieces from slipping. The pieces are now ready to be 
heated and welded. Care must be taken with the heat- 
ing to raise the temperature slowly and to use a good flux 
to prevent the lips (c-c) from burning. The piece is 
placed on the face of the anvil and welded. 

Lap Weld with Two Pieces. — The ends of the stock 
are upset and the scarfs are made in a similar way to 
those for the flat ring. Fig. 150 shows the pieces. 
The main difficulty with this weld is in handling the 
pieces. They are placed in the fire scarf side down in 
as nearly the same position as possible so that both 
will be brought to the proper temperature at the same 

time. The hammer is 
placed in a conveni- 
ent position on the 
heel of the anvil. 
When heated the 
pieces are grasped to 
be laid on the anvil 
with the scarf side of 
Flg- 151 the piece held with 

the right hand up and the one held by the left down. 
They are given a rap on the horn of the anvil to free 
them from dirt and placed as shown in Fig. 151, the 




102 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

right hand piece lying on the anvil, the end coming about 

to the middle of the face, and the left-hand piece resting 

on the edge of the anvil, the scarf being directly over 

— r . . . p r ,- ..<fy — j-,™^ the scarf of the right-hand 

__ ' _^_^,„. !:!.:• ;i piece The left hand is now 

raised to press the pieces in 
| contact enough to hold them 

together when the tongs are 
Fl §- 152 removed. The hold on the 

right-hand tongs is now released so that the tongs will 
fall to the floor, while the smith takes the hammer and 
makes the weld by giving a few sharp blows. The piece 
can then be finished as desired. It may be necessary to 
reheat. Round pieces can be welded in the same manner. 
Do not attempt to remove the right-hand tongs in any 
other way than by letting them fall, for the work might be 
disarranged or time lost. Don't try to throw them away; 
simply open up the fingers and let them fall. Have the 
hammer so that it will be in a natural position for strik- 
ing when picked up. A beginner should practise taking 
the pieces from the fire and placing them in proper 
position on the anvil several times before heating them. 

Butt weld is made by 
butting together the un- 
scarf ed ends of two pieces 
of stock. In butt-welding 
the ends should be upset 
slightly, and rounded so 
as to force out the slag 
and dirt (a) (Fig. 152). 
The pieces, when at the Flg ' 153 

proper heat, are united by being forced together. The 
metal forced out makes a ring (6) (Fig. 152), at the joint, 
which should be hammered back with the hammer and 
swages to the original size. Short heavy pieces may be 




HAND WELDING 



103 




Fig. 154 



butt-welded to advantage by a blow of a power hammer. 
Longer pieces can be jammed together, or, when heavy, 
the first bar can be rested on the anvil so that the end 
to be welded will project 
over the edge a little. 
The second bar is held in 
a chain sling, level with 
the first. The end of the 
second bar is struck for- 
cibly with a sledge, to 
drive the -bars together to 
make them stick. Pieces 
long enough to extend 
through the fire can be welded in the fire. When the 
pieces have reached the proper heat, the exposed end 
of one is held firmly, while that of the other is struck a 
good blow. Such welding in the fire is aided if the 
pieces can be supported or guided by a bearing of some 
sort. As soon as the pieces have been joined they must 
be taken from the fire and finished to size on the anvil 
or under the power hammer. 

Jump Weld. — When a stem is to be welded to a 
head, (a) (Fig. 153), the piece is jumped or butted on, 

making a . jump weld. The 
flat part is scarfed by a small 
round indentation as shown 
at (6) and the stem upset 
and rounded as at (c). The 
end of the stem must more 
than fill the hole but not 
touch the sides as shown at 
(d) . The pieces are brought to the right heat and the stem 
inserted in the scarf and given a good blow with the ham- 
mer. The flange (e) is now welded and dressed down with 
a fuller or set hammer (Fig. 154) or in a heading tool. 




Fig. 155 



104 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




Fig. 156 



Angle Weld. — Fig. 155 shows the method of scarfing 
for an angle weld. {Remember to upset the ends.) The 
pieces are heated, taken from the fire, and placed on the 

anvil in the same way as 
in the two-piece lap weld, 
excepting that they are 
placed at right angles to 
each other. As the corners 
are apt to burn during the 
heating, they should be 
tipped up in the fire so as 
to be out of the zone of 
greatest heat until the main 
part of the pieces are at a 
welding temperature. They can be turned down for an 
instant so as to insure proper heat. 

Tee Weld. — A weld where a stem is to be joined to 
the center of a piece so as to form a "T" is one of the 
most difficult of welds, since it is hard to get the proper 
heat at the center of the top of the "T" without burning 
the ends. The cross-piece or top should be upset slightly 
where the weld is to be and scarfed with the pene, (a) 
(Fig. 156). The stem is upset at one end and shaped and 
scarfed as at (6). The bulged portion of (6) should be 
large enough to overlap (a) as indicated by the dotted 
line. To properly heat the scarf of (a) without burning 
the ends can be done best by making a narrow fire 
which will allow the ends of (a) to extend into the banks. 
The pieces are removed from 
the fire and welded in a 
manner similar to that of 
the angle weld. . Fi S- 157 

Scarfing Steel. — Fig. 157 shows a method of scarfing 
pieces of steel to prevent their slipping when being 
welded. / 



HAND WELDING 105 

Welding Steel to Iron. — In welding steel to iron a 
hollow fire is best. The iron which requires the greater 
heat is placed into the fire first and heated with borax 
as a flux nearly to the point of fusion, before the steel 
face is placed into the fire. The steel is laid alongside 
of the iron until it reaches a full red or yellow white 
heat. Since by this time the iron has reached the weld- 
ing heat, a little more flux is added, the steel is placed 
in position on the iron while it is still in the fire, and 
pressed down with the tongs. The iron with the steel 
now stuck to it is removed from the fire, and placed 
on the anvil, and the steel is hammered down to com- 
plete the weld. 

Fagot Weld. — Fagot welding is the welding together 
of a bundle of short pieces of scrap wrought iron. This 
is done by placing on a plate or a board the pieces to 
be welded, arranged in a neat, solid pile. The whole is 
then securely bound together, placed in a furnace and 
brought to a welding heat and welded to a solid slab 
under the power hammer. These slabs can be drawn 
clown to bars of the desired size and shape, and several 
slabs can be welded together when larger stock is 
needed. 

Welding Steel. — The formation of a soft, pasty sur- 
face to steel without burning it is absolutely necessary 
to effect a union of two pieces of steel. To prevent oxi- 
dation, it is absolutely necessary to use a flux such as 
borax, clay, potash, soda, sand and sal ammoniac, or 
ordinary red clay dried and powdered, which is a good 
and cheap flux for use with steel. Borax, when fused, 
powdered, and mixed with sal ammoniac, is the best 
known flux, but as it is expensive its use is confined to 
the finest steel or alloy steel that will not permit of 
being heated as high as do low-grade steels. Barite or 
heavy spar makes a very good flux and costs only about 



106 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

half as much as does borax. It does not fuse as easily 
as borax but forms an excellent covering for the steel to 
prevent oxidation. 

Although steel can be welded, it should be avoided 
when the pieces are to be hardened, for they are almost 
sure to crack at the weld when dipped in the hardening 
solution. 

Hammer refining in steel welding is a very important 
part of the operation and never should be neglected. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

What is welding? What is meant by the welding heat? How 
do each of the materials, wrought iron, mild steel, and tool steel 
look when at the welding heat? What kind of metals can be 
welded? What characteristics do they have when being heated to 
the melting point? What causes the difficulty in welding? How 
must the fire be kept? What does air, dirt, and scale do in a weld? 
How can the scale be prevented from forming? What is a flux? 
Name some fluxes. Can all fluxes be used on all. materials? Can 
a weld be made without a flux? How does a flux assist in welding? 
If pieces are not right for welding will hammering make them 
stick? What will happen if the iron is heated too high? Must 
the iron be heated fast or slowly? Why? Does it make any differ- 
ence if the piece is not heated uniformly? When should the flux 
be added in making a weld? What is a lap weld? How is a chain 
link made? Why do we make two links separately first and then 
join them by a third link? Why not each link to the other? How 
is a flat collar made? Why are the scarfs slightly rounded? How 
is a washer made? Why must it be kept hot when bending? Why 
are the ends upset? Tell how to weld a bolt head to a stem. Why 
are split welds used? What are the different kinds of split welds? 
Give the operation of taking two pieces from the fire for a two- 
piece weld. Why should the tongs be allowed to fall instead of 
being taken from the work? What is a butt weld? What are the 
different ways of making one? What is a jump weld? Why must 
the upset part of the stem more than fill the depression in the 
head? Why must the stem not touch the sides before the weld is 
made? What must be looked out for in making an angle weld? 
What makes a T-weld difficult? How can this difficulty be helped? 



HAND WELDING 107 

Name a good way of scarfing steel. What kind of a fire is used in 
welding steel to iron? Tell how steel is welded to iron. What is 
fagot welding? What is the important thing to watch in welding 
steel? Why should steel that is to be hardened not be welded? 
What is hammer refining? 



CHAPTER X 
WELDING PROCESSES 

ELECTRIC WELDING 

There are two principal methods used in making welds 
by electricity, i.e. : (a) The arc system, in which the weld 
is usually made by fusion; (6) the incandescent system, 
in which the metal is heated only to the plastic condi- 
tion by electrical resistance. 

Arc Welding. — There are three processes of arc 
welding : 

1. The Zerener, in which the arc is drawn between 
two carbon electrodes and the heat from the arc then 
directed upon the metal to be welded, which is brought 
to the melting point and in cooling completes the weld. 

2. The Bernardos, in which the arc is drawn between 
the metal and one carbon electrode, that is, the arc 
reaches from the metal to be welded to the carbon. 
The arc may be continued long enough to melt the 
metal, or it may be stopped at the point of plasticity 
if a pressure weld is desired. 

3. The Slavianoff, in which the arc is drawn between 
the metal to be welded and one metal electrode. The 
work is made the positive pole, thus heating the ends to 
be welded to the melting point. The electricity also 
causes the metal electrode to melt and flow into the 
joint, which produces a weld by fusion. The flame of the 
electric arc produces the highest temperature known, 
often reaching 7200° F. Some salient points to be re- 
membered when making an arc weld are: the metal to 



WELDING PROCESSES 109 

be welded should be free from dirt or rust. The weld 
should be well hammered before it cools. A flux is 
necessary. The work should always be the positive 
terminal. The arc should be as long as possible. The 
arc should be given a rotary motion by the hand. 

Resistance Welding. — The principle of the incan- 
descent method of welding is that, while the parts to be 
welded are held tightly together, a heavy current of 
electricity, at a very low voltage, is passed through the 
metal and across the joint. The size of the metal at the 
weld, however, is usually too small for the large amount 
of electricity to pass through without heating it up, and 
this occurs so quickly that a welding heat is reached be- 
fore there is time for much loss by radiation, or damage 
by oxidation, of the welded parts. It will be noted that 
this is welding by plasticity, as in the case of the or- 
dinary hand weld. 

This resistance system of electric welding differs from 
all other methods in that the heat is generated in the 
metal itself. This eliminates the possibility of the weld 
being defective from the dirt and sulphur of a forge fire, 
or from the rapid oxidizing effects of some other methods 
of welding. A flux is therefore usually unnecessary. 

There are many ways of fusing the electrical resistance 
process of welding, of which may be mentioned the 
following : 

Butt Welding. — - Here the parts to be welded are 
arranged end to end and held tightly in place by clamps. 
These clamps serve to squeeze the joint together as the 
metal is heated up and made soft. Then the weld is 
completed by sufficient pressure being exerted on the 
clamps to upset the joint. This pressure amounts to 
about 1800 lbs. per square inch for a weld of tool steel. 
The upset portion of the weld, called the "burr," should 
be left in place whenever practicable, because of the 



110 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

additional strength it lends to the joint. Much of the 
electric butt welding is done by welding machines. They 
work automatically, and require only a few seconds to 
make a weld. In the case of light work like flat bands, 
the weld is made in about five seconds, and for 2" round 
iron less than 2 minutes is required, while the cost 
for say \" round iron welds is only about 35 cents per 
1000 welds, and for 2" round iron about $65 per 1000 
welds. 

Lap Welding. — This form of weld is obtained by 
lapping one piece of metal over the other, thus gaining 
a stronger weld due to the greater area of contact in the 
joint. In lap welding by electric machines, the two 
sheets of metal are overlapped about f", and the joint 
is heated to the point of fusion by a revolving electrode. 
At the same time the two sheets of metal are squeezed 
together so that the welded portion is flattened down to 
about the thickness of the original sheet. 

Spot Welding. — It is often necessary in practice to 
fasten two or more sheets of metal together by drilling 
holes and then riveting through them. Spot welding does 
away with this practice. The machines for spot welding 
are constructed so that the electrodes are in the form of 
two punch-shaped jaws. The metal to be welded is 
placed between these jaws, which are forced tightly to- 
gether. The electric current is turned on with a foot 
switch, and the joint heated to the welding temperature 
only over a spot the size of the ends of the jaws, which 
requires but a few seconds of time. The pressure is re- 
leased, and the two pieces of metal are welded together 
at the spot, which cools almost instantly, because the 
heat was confined to the surface under the electrodes. 
Then the joint is moved along so that more spots may 
be welded. A spot weld is frequently stronger than a 
riveted joint, especially in the case of very thin metal. 



WELDING PROCESSES 111 

Point Welding. — While spot welding is intended to 
take the place of riveting, point welding is especially 
applicable to the fastening together of sheets of metal 
which completely or almost cover each other, and are not 
held just along an edge as in spot welding. Point weld- 
ing is done by making a number of raised points on the 
surface of a sheet of metal and, after placing the adjoin- 
ing sheet upon these elevations, the current is applied 
at the points, heating them to a temperature high enough 
to weld them fast to the upper sheet, which is being 
pressed upon the points by the electrodes of the electric 
welder. 

Ridge Welding. — This method of making an electric 
weld differs from point welding in that a long ridge is 
raised on one sheet of the metal to form the bearing sur- 
face for the adjoining sheet, and the shape of the elec- 
trodes of the electric welding machines have to be made 
accordingly. The advantage of this form of weld lies in 
the strength obtained from the greater welding area sup- 
plied by the ridge. * 

T, L and X Welding. — The tee, ell and cross forms of 
welds are used in angle-bar work, at intersections, for 
reinforcing corners, etc. The electric process success- 
fully applies to this class of weld, and the work is quickly 
accomplished by the electric welding machine. These 
difficult shapes of welds give a good idea of the wide 
scope of the electric process of welding. 

Chain Welding. — One of the latest applications of 
electric welding is to be found in making steel chains. 
In the first attempts the links were shaped in halves, and 
their ends butt-welded together. This left a troublesome 
burr in the middle of each link. Then an electric welder 
was designed which joined the link by a weld on one side, 
which also left a projection on the link that required to 
be ground off. Now chain links are successfully welded 



112 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

by automatic electric machines, the weld being made on 
one side of each link so perfectly that no projection or 
fin is left on it. The electric welding of chain links has 
made it possible for heavier loads to be put upon the 
chains, due to the greater efficiency of the electric over 
the hand weld. 

AUTOGENOUS WELDING 

Oxyacetylene Welding. — In the autogenous process of 
welding the heating medium is usually the oxyacetylene 
torch in place of the forge fire, although in some instances 
the oxygen has been used in combination with other 
combustible gases than acetylene, such as Pintsch gas, 
hydrogen, etc., but these have not proved as efficient as 
the acetylene. The method used in making an ordinary 
autogenous weld is as follows: the two pieces of metal 
to be joined are laid slightly apart. If the metal is over 
rV thick the ends should be beveled on one side for 
pieces of ordinary sizes, and in the case of thick heavy 
metal both sides of the joint ends should be beveled. 
The flame is then played upon the ends so as to melt the 
surface and form a little pool of metal. A small rod of 
adding metal is held in the flame and caused to melt and 
drop into the pool between the ends. This added metal 
finally fills up the groove of joint and the weld is com- 
pleted. It is to be noted that this is welding by fusion, 
that is, by melting the metal, whereas the ordinary hand 
weld is made at the point of greatest plasticity of the 
metal, which is at a temperature about 200° F. lower than 
the point of fusion. The beveling of the ends of the job 
is necessary in order to convey the heat to the center of 
the pieces of metal before the flame burns the outer 
surface. 

The added metal must be of the same kind as the 
pieces being welded, that is, if the latter are machinery 
steel the added metal should be machinery steel. 



WELDING PROCESSES 113 

The heat is supplied as follows: the oxygen is confined 
in a steel cylinder under a pressure of 1800 lbs. per square 
inch in the high-pressure system, or under a pressure of 
300 lbs. per square inch in the low-pressure system, the 
advantages of the two being that the high-pressure is the 
most economical system from the standpoint of cost of 
transportation, and the low-pressure system is most ad- 
vantageous when the oxygen is generated on the premises 
of the user. Another tank is filled with acetylene, which 
is produced directly from calcium carbide in some cases, 
but when the outfit is to be portable the acetylene is 
usually obtained by placing asbestos in a cylinder into 
which is poured acetone. The acetone absorbs the acety- 
lene gas, separating it from the liquid. The acetylene gas 
then passes through a reducing valve and a hose to the 
torch, where it combines with the oxygen, forming a flame 
at the tip of about 6000° F. To make a strong weld the 
filling in of the joint should be continued until it assumes 
a convex shape, care being taken to see that the ele- 
vated portion makes a thin curved or fillet connection 
with the main surface, and not a sharp corner which 
might come from balling the pool too much as it cools. 

Autogenous welding is being used extensively in shop 
practice. It has the unusual advantage of being applicable 
to the welding of non-ferrous metals such as brass, 
copper, aluminum, etc., as well as all the ferrous metals 
like steel, wrought iron, and even cast iron. 

Oxyacetylene Building up. — The oxyacetylene flame 
is being used by many plants in making repairs, by en- 
larging a worn machine part so that it can be continued 
in use, thus avoiding the cost of a complete new part. 
For example, the latest railroad shop practice is to use 
the building-up process on such work as the repairs of 
worn piston rods. In this case the worn end of the rod 
is heating up in a forge fire, and then the oxyacetylene 



114 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

flame used to melt enough steel rod over the surface 
of the piston rod so that it can be again turned to a fit. 
In a job of this kind there is a saving of about $10 on 
each piston rod repaired. This building-up process may 
also be used to repair a broken bearing, put a boss on a 
frame, replace a broken gear tooth, etc. 

Oxyacetylene Cutting of Metals. — Another very im- 
portant use of the oxyacetylene flame is that of cutting 
metals. Indeed this method has become so popular that 
it has in many instances superseded machines which have 
long been depended upon for the severance of metals. 

In this process the torch tip used has three holes, the 
center one for oxygen alone, and each of the other two 
for the combined oxygen and acetylene gases. The cut- 
ting is accomplished as follows : A small spot of the metal 
is made red-hot by the two outside heating flames of the 
torch. . Then the central jet of oxygen is directed on the 
hot spot and, because of. the great affinity red-hot iron 
has for oxygen, there occurs instantaneous oxidation of 
the metal, and a groove is burned through the piece. 
That is, the metal is not melted, but oxidizes and flies 
apart in small pieces of scale, like that found near an 
anvil. The kerf (groove) caused by this disintegration 
of the metal may be as narrow as ^V' f° r small work, and 
a depth of cut of 24 inches has been accomplished. The 
cutting may be done quite rapidly, the usual speed being 
about one lineal foot per minute for steel one inch thick. 

Steel and wrought iron are the only metals which can 
be cut by the oxyacetylene flame, which therefore excludes 
cast iron and the non-ferrous metals. 

THERMIT WELDING 

The thermit processes were discovered by Dr. Hans 
Goldschmidt in 1898. Thermit is a mixture of a metallic 
oxide, sulphide or chloride with finely divided aluminum, 



WELDING PROCESSES 115 

and while iron thermit is probably the one most often 
used, other mixtures may be obtained such as nickel 
thermit, manganese thermit, chromium thermit, titanium 
thermit, etc. 

The principle of the operation of thermit is that, 
because of the great affinity for oxygen possessed by 
aluminum, a reaction is produced upon igniting the mix- 
ture in one spot, which instantly reduces the whole mass 
to liquid. This reaction of the aluminum will entirely 
extract the metallic element from the oxide, that is, in 
the case of the ordinary thermit, the iron is separated 
from the oxygen in the scale and becomes liquid steel. 

Thermit is used in many ways, of which may be 
mentioned: (a) The making of welds by fusion, (6) 
the making of welds by plasticity, (c) the welding of 
castings, (d) the strengthening of castings. 

Thermit Welding by Fusion. — A thermit fusion weld 
is made in the following manner: assume an engine 
steel crank-shaft is to be welded. The two parts of the 
shaft are clamped down to keep them from getting out 
of line, with their ends about an inch apart. Around this 
joint is formed a wax pattern. A sand mold, held se- 
curely in place by sheet-iron frames, is then shapened 
over the wax pattern, and as the sand is moist it must 
be quickly dried out by a gasolene preheating torch in- 
troduced into an opening at the bottom of the mold. 
A crucible is next placed so that the tapping hole in the 
bottom of the crucible is directly over a pouring gate in 
the mold. Then the charge of thermit is put into the 
crucible and ignited. This ignition is accomplished by 
placing a small quantity of magnesium powder on top 
of the thermit and lighting it with a match. In about 
half a minute the whole crucible full of thermit powder 
will become liquid steel having a temperature of about 
5400° F. Then the tapping pin in the bottom of the 



116 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

crucible is struck an upward blow, which releases the 
molten thermit so that it flows into the mold and fills it 
up after burning the wax pattern out of the mold. The 
ends of the shaft are melted by the thermit, and the 
whole mass fused together. This is literally casting a 
weld. 

By making the wax pattern large enough the welded 
joint may be so proportioned that it will have greater 
strength than the shaft itself. 

It is best to preheat the parts to be welded before 
applying the thermit, or the liquid thermit may be 
chilled enough to prevent successful fusion. 

Thermit Welding by Plasticity. — A good example of 
this method of using thermit may be found in the 
welding of pipe joints. In this case the ends to be welded 
are turned up with a hand-facing machine so that the 
surfaces fit closely together. Screw clamps are fastened 
on the pipe at each side of the weld. A cast-iron mold 
is placed around the joint. Then a charge of thermit 
in a hand crucible is ignited, and as soon as the seething 
ceases the molten thermit is poured from the top of the 
crucible into the iron mold and around the pipe ends, 
which heats up the joint to the plastic condition. 

The soft ends of the pipes are then forced together by 
screwing upon the clamps. This upsets the weld slightly 
on the outer surface, but the inside diameter of the pipe 
remains unaffected. 

It should be noted that the principles represented in 
the two types of welds just described are quite different. 
When welding by fusion the molten thermit is tapped 
from the bottom of the crucible, thus sending into the 
joint a quantity of liquid steel which melts and becomes 
part of the steel shaft to be welded. This molten steel 
serves as a heating medium and then amalgamates with 
the steel it has melted to form a homogeneous mass. 



WELDING PROCESSES 117 

The weak, molten slag is prevented from getting into 
.the mold by the thermit steel, which, being the heaviest 
and poured from the bottom of the crucible, is the first 
to enter and fill up the mold. 

When welding by plasticity, however, the liquid ther- 
mit is poured from the top of the crucible, and the slag, 
being the lighter and therefore to be found floating on 
top of the thermit steel, is the first to enter the mold. 
There it coats all the surfaces of the mold and pipe 
ends, so that when the thermit steel follows at a tem- 
perature of 5400° F. it is kept from contact with the 
metal surfaces. Its heat is, however, transmitted through 
the slag jacket to the pipe ends, heating them to an 
ordinary welding temperature. Were the molten thermit 
steel to touch the pipes, a hole would instantly be burnt 
through their surface. The proper amount of heat to 
be supplied to a weld is, of course, regulated by the 
quantity of thermit powder placed in the crucible. 

The advantages claimed for pipe welding by the 
thermit process are that the joints are permanent and 
non-leakable, and cost less to make than buying and 
installing the ordinary flange connections. The apparatus 
for these welds is light, and may easily be carried to the 
job. No outside heat or power is needed. 

Thermit Welding of Castings. — To weld a casting 
has heretofore been rather an unusual operation. It is 
now done successfully by the use of thermit. In this 
process the broken joint must be cut out so as to leave 
a space of about §". Then the job is clamped down, a 
wax pattern made, and a sand mold placed around the 
joint, practically as has been described for thermit weld- 
ing by fusion. The parts to be welded must be preheated 
with a blow torch to a bright red. When the molten 
thermit is tapped from the bottom of the crucible and 
allowed to flow into the mold, it melts the wax pattern 



118 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

and fills up the space the wax occupied, fusing to the 
solid parts of the casting. This leaves the casting 
stronger than the original section, if the area of the 
joint can be enlarged by the thermit. 

Thermit Strengthening of Castings. — Thermit is also 
used quite extensively in the repairing of castings having 
flaws, like blow-holes. If the flaw is small, not over three 
inches in area, the thermit Pouring-Cup Method may 
be used to make the necessary repair. First the bad 
part of the casting should be made red-hot. A pouring 
cup shaped like an ordinary steel sleeve, made of dry 
sand, is placed over the flaw, and filled with thermit. 
The thermit is lighted by the use of a little ignition 
powder and a match. The reaction takes place in the 
cup, as it did in the crucible in welding, and the molten 
thermit fuses the casting, and also fills up the flaw 
cavity. It is best to pour enough thermit to leave a 
small elevation beyond the surface of the casting, which 
may later be ground off. 

Another application of thermit to castings is where it 
is put into the molten iron tapped from the foundry 
cupola. The thermit powder is packed in a can which in 
turn is fastened to an iron rod. After the iron has been 
drawn from the cupola and is in the ladle, the can of 
thermit called the "little devil" is pushed down into 
the molten iron. The reaction of the thermit occurs 
instantly, and as its temperature is about 5400° F. as 
compared to say 2200° F. for the molten iron, the iron 
is materially increased in temperature and fluidity, 
which means more perfect and stronger castings. 

WELDING WITH LIQUID FUEL 

One of the latest methods used in welding is the oil- 
fuel furnace. Here an attempt is made to improve on 
the ordinary soft-coal forge fire for heating up the parts 



WELDING PROCESSES 119 

to be welded by the use of an oil furnace. This method 
is claimed to possess such advantages as: (a) A more 
even heat in the furnace than can be obtained with any 
other fuel; (6) a temperature of heat which is uniform 
throughout; (c) economy of fuel, as the cheapest crude 
and fuel oils can be utilized. 

The oil fuel is supplied to the furnace through a 
special burner under air pressure, which atomizes the oil 
so that it readily unites with the air in the furnace and 
goes into instant combustion. The furnace is made with 
two chambers, one for the combustion of the fuel, and 
the other to hold the metal to be welded. This plan pre- 
vents the flames from coming in direct contact with the 
job, and does away with the rapid oxidation so common 
to the open fire. A flux is therefore unnecessary in oil- 
furnace welding. This greatly facilitates the work, and 
in a case on record it was possible to weld the safe ends 
on locomotive boiler flues at the rate of 60 flues per hour 
as compared to 16 per hour by the coal fire. 

The oil furnace is much used for " blooming" large 
axles or shafts. That is, piles of scrap iron are placed in 
the furnace and after being quickly heated to a welding 
temperature, each pile is taken out and hammered down 
to a solid piece called a "bloom," from which are made 
the shafts. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

Describe the Zerener Electric Arc Welding system. How does 
the Bernardos arc system differ from the Zerener system? What 
kind of electrodes are used in the Slavianoff system? Is the arc 
weld made by fusion or plasticity? How does Electric Resistance 
Welding differ from Arc Welding? How is an electric butt weld 
made? What is the advantage of the electric lap weld? Where 
does electric spot welding apply in practise? Describe electric 
point welding. How does electric ridge welding differ from point 
welding? Where should electric cross welding be used? How are 
chains welded by electricity? What is meant by autogenous weld- 



120 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

ing? What is the difference between the high-pressure and low- 
pressure systems of autogenous welding? What kinds of metal 
can be welded by the autogenous process? Describe the oxy- 
acetylene building-up process. What advantage is obtained from 
its use? How are metals cut with the oxyacetylene flame? Can 
cast iron be cut with this flame? What is the principle of the 
cutting? How many jets are ued in cutting with oxyacetylene? 
What is thermit? How is a thermit weld made by fusion? How 
is a thermit weld made by plasticity? How does the temperature 
of molten thermit compare with that of the oxyacetylene flame? 
Describe the thermit method of welding castings. How can a cast- 
ing be strengthened by the thermit process? Describe a liquid 
fuel weld. What advantage is obtained from the use of the oil 
furnace for welding? 



CHAPTER XI 



BRAZING 



Brazing is the joining together of two or more pieces 
of metal, either similar or dissimilar, by means of a 
brass spelter. 

Hard Soldering is a similar operation, in which an 
alloy of silver is used. 

The Principle of Brazing is that a brass spelter, when 
placed on metals of higher melting points, as copper, 
iron, etc., will melt and weld itself to these other metals 
before they reach their melting point, and if t?.ken from 
the fire and allowed to set will hold the pieces together 
firmly. Only enough heat should be applied to cause the 
spelter to run. Pieces to be brazed must be clean; that 
is, free from scale, grease, and other substances that will 
prevent the spelter from adhering to the pieces. A good 
flux must be used to prevent the surface from oxidizing. 

Flux. — Borax is the flux most generally used, for all 
kinds of brazing. For commercial work granular boracic 
acid is sometimes used as it is much cheaper. A mixture 
of borax and boracic acid work well together. 

Spelter. — ■ An alloy of equal parts of copper and zinc 
is the brazing material most commonly used. Often 
work requires an alloy that is either harder or softer 
than spelter, which gives rise to the following 
compositions : 

Alloys Tin Copper Zinc Antimony 

Hardest 0~ 3 10 

Hard (spelter) 1 1 

Soft 1 4 3 

Very soft 2 1 



122 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

In commercial work spelter mixed with borax, or 
boracic acid, in proportions found best suited to the 
work, is found convenient. This mixture should be 
powdered and mixed thoroughly. In this condition it 
can be placed on the heated work and it will melt and 
"run" very easily. 

Preparing Pieces. — The pieces must be fitted together 
with utmost care to get a close joint, since a close joint 
means a strong braze. It is not necessary to have a 
place for the spelter, for no matter how tight the joint 
is made "it will find its way between the surfaces. 

Cleaning. — The surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned. 
This is done usually by filing, grinding, or scraping, and 
the fitting is done at the same time. The joints are 
always cleaned with emery-cloth or a wire brush. Acid 
is sometimes used, but if allowed to remain on the work 
it eats the iron under the braze and causes a weak spot. 
Acid should never be used without the use of an alkali 
afterwards to neutralize any active acid which may have 
remained on the iron. Since alkali will interfere with the 
braze, unless it is one the bad effects of which can be counter- 
acted by the flux, its use should be avoided if possible. 

Methods of Fitting. — Two methods are extensively 
used in making the joints of a 
braze (Fig. 158). (a) is used for 
rings of round section and (6) for 
general work. Where the faces 
are large the butt joint can be 
used and often surfaces require 
special fitting or joining. 

Heating. — The source of heat for brazing can be any- 
thing that will heat the parts so that they will melt the 
spelter, as a forge fire, a gas flame, etc., 

In the case of the forge, charcoal makes the best fire, 
and coke is very good. Bituminous coal should not be 




BRAZING 



123 



used until after it has been coked, and the sulphur driven 
off. The fire should be made into a sort of crater, and 
allowed to burn hard till all is a good bright red. Then 
the blast should be reduced. The pieces are placed on 
the bed of coals if large, or held above it if small, and 
when the work has reached a red heat, the flux and 
spelter placed on carefully at the proper spot, with a 
long-handled spoon having a small bowl. It is best first 
to add the borax; and when 
it starts to fuse and run, 
to add the spelter; later a 
little more flux when the 
spelter gets hot. A wire 
should be used to poke the 
spelter into the proper place. 
The work should heat 
slowly and evenly. As soon 
as the spelter has run, the 
pieces should be taken from 
the fire and allowed to cool. 
If the pieces are of such a 
nature that the unused spel- 
ter can be rubbed off before 
the pieces are cool, this 
should be clone, as it is much easier to remove the 
hot spelter than it is to file off the cold. 

Brazing furnaces fired by gas can be obtained on the 
market, or a very serviceable one can be made out of 
fire-brick or tile. Fig. 159 shows one made from small 
circular tile. The gas torch is made up of regular stock 
fittings. The gas flame heats the tiles intensely hot, the 
heat being reflected on the work, to heat it and melt the 
spelter and flux. The flux and spelter are added in a 
similar way to that followed when a forge fire is being 
used. 




Fig. 159 



124 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




Fig. 160 



The Gasoline Torch. — A very convenient heating 
device for small work is shown in Fig. 160. The work is 
placed on, and surrounded by, fire-brick or hard char- 
coal, and the flame of the 
torch directed to heat the 
work by direct contact and 
reflected heat. Fig. 161 
shows the torch in use, braz- 
ing a small ring in the hol- 
low of a piece of charcoal. 
Flat pieces are often clamped 
between two pieces of char- 
coal. Fig. 162 shows a band- 
saw fixed for brazing in this 
way. 

The Blowpipe (Fig. 163) replaces the torch nicely in 
either of the cases above. 

The small blowpipe, an alcohol lamp, or even a candle, 
is useful in cases of small work. The work is placed on 
charcoal, as in Fig. 161, and the flame of the lamp is 
impinged against the 
coal effectively to heat, 
the work and melt the 
spelter. 

Hot Tongs. — Extra 
heavy blacksmith tongs 
are often heated red- 
hot and are used to 

heat the work to be brazed by the gripping of it at 
the proper place. In this case the work necessarily 
must be thin to be heated rapidly. The flux and 
spelter should be placed between the pieces before the 
hold with the tongs is taken. The mixture of powdered 
flux and spelter spoken of at the first of this chapter is 
best for this case. 




BRAZING 



125 



Brazing by Immersion consists of dipping the work in 

a bath of melted spelter, on top of which floats melted 

flux (Fig. 164). The melting can be done in any crucible 

suitable for the size and shape of 

the work. The piece is first dipped 

into the melted flux and held 

there till it is heated sufficiently. 

Then it is passed into the spelter 

which flows into the openings to 

be brazed. As the molten spelter 

will adhere to any other parts of 

the metal it may touch, it is 

necessary to coat the work with a graphite paste 

wherever the spelter is not wanted. This can be done 

easily and quickly, thus there will be little or no spelter 

to clean off . This makes 
a saving in time in 
cleaning as well as in 
the brazing operation 
itself. It seems that 
any of the following 




Fig. 162 




Fig. 163 



fluxes work well with this method: borax; 1 part borax 
and 3 parts boracic acid ; or 3 parts borax and 1 part bo- 
racic acid ; boracic acid alone, and soda mixed with borax. 
Cast Iron can be brazed by the aid of several patented 
preparations which are on the market, 
or by the Pitch method. In this method 
the surfaces to be brazed are cleaned 
carefully and covered with a coating of 
oxide of copper mixed with a liquid, 
such as sulphuric acid. These prepa- 
rations will allow the oxide to be spread on and hold it 
on after it dries. The oxide reduces the carbon in the 
cast iron, and allows the spelter, which is applied as in 
brazing other metals, to take hold and join the pieces. 




Fig. 164 




o 



126 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

Without this oxide of copper, the carbon in the iron 
would act as does the graphite coating in the dipping 
process, preventing the spelter from sticking to the iron 
and from joining the parts. 

As the tensile strength of the 
spelter is greater than that of the 
cast iron, the brazed piece will be 
stronger than it was before the 
break. This is well illustrated in 
the piece shown in Fig. 165. This 
piece was brazed by the author 
and when put into service was again broken; but in- 
stead of breaking through the brazed part (a), which 
was the weakest part of the casting, it broke through a 
thicker part at (6). 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

What is brazing? What is hard soldering? What is the prin- 
ciple of brazing? What fluxes are generally used? What is 
spelter? How should pieces be fitted for brazing? Is it necessary 
to leave a space for spelter? How are pieces cleaned? How many 
methods of fitting? How may pieces be heated? Describe a 
brazing furnace. How is a gasoline torch used? A blowpipe? 
On what kind of pieces can hot tongs be used? Describe the 
operation of brazing by immersion. What does the graphite coat- 
ing do? How may cast iron be brazed? What is copper oxide 
used for? Does brazing make a strong joint? 



CHAPTER XII 
CARBON TOOL STEEL 

The forging of tool steel differs but little from that of 
wrought iron, except in the extreme care with which it 
must be heated and handled. Therefore directions for 
specific operations will not be given, as similar ones 
already have been described. In this chapter this differ- 
ence in heating and handling, the action in the cooling 
bath, and the characteristics of the steel itself will be 
treated. 

Steel. — There are many makes of steel and several 
grades of each make. The average man, however, recog- 
nizes but two kinds; i.e., tool steel and machinery steel. 
Since machinery steel, or low-carbon steel, closely re- 
sembles wrought iron, the method of working it is prac- 
tically the same. Therefore what has already been stated 
with regard to wrought iron will apply equally well to 
machinery steel. Tool steel, however, when cooled more 
or less rapidly from a red heat or one just above, acts 
differently. Owing to the sudden cooling the carbon and 
the iron of the steel form a peculiar chemical compound 
which makes it very hard. This action will form the 
subject matter of this chapter. 

Tool Steel 1 is steel from which tools requiring a hard 
cutting edge are made. 2 It usually contains from .5 to 

1 When the term tool steel is used, it usually is understood to 
mean carbon tool steel, unless otherwise indicated. 

2 In the past few years a great many tools have been made 
from other steels that possess hardening qualities. These steels 
will be taken up in a later chapter. 



128 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

1.5 per cent of carbon. This carbon gives the steel the 
property of hardening, when heated and then suddenly 
cooled. Tool steel is used for cutting tools or for some 
parts of machinery where great hardness is required. 
On the other hand machinery steel is used for parts that 
do not require hardening at all, or at the most only 
surface hardening. As it is of a lower grade than tool 
steel, and is soft, it can be machined or forged easily, 
heated to a higher temperature, and is cheaper. In fact, 
in some cases, about the only difference between ma- 
chinery steel and wrought iron is the process by which 
it is made. 

Temper is the term used by steel makers to indicate 
the percentage of carbon or hardening elements in the 
steel. Steels are designated as of low, medium, or high 
temper, or by some letter or mark meaning that the 
steel has a low, medium, or high percentage of carbon. 
Steels are also classed as follows: 

Razor Temper (1| % carbon). This steel is so high in 
carbon that it can be handled only with the greatest 
care, but it gives a very hard cutting edge. 

Saw File Temper (If % carbon). This steel will work 
somewhat easier than Razor temper, but must be kept 
below a red heat. 

Tool Temper (1| % carbon). Can be worked at a heat 
up to the point at which scale begins to form. This 
steel is used for drills and lathe and planer tools. 

Spindle Temper (1| % carbon). This is worked at about 
the same heat as Tool temper, and is used for milling 
cutters, thread dies, and large planer tools. 

Chisel Temper (1% carbon). Can be worked at a 
good red heat. It is used for chisels and tools that are 
required to be tough to stand blows from a hammer. 

Set Temper (f % carbon). It is worked at the same 
heat as chisel temper, and is used for press dies or where 



CARBON TOOL STEEL 129 

a hard outside surface is needed with a backing of 
tough metal to stand great pressure. 

Point. — In steel the term " point" means the one one- 
hundredth of 1 per cent of any element (usually car- 
bon). Thus 100 points means 1 per cent or 60 points 
carbon steel is steel with 0.60 % of carbon. From this 
arises another notation as follows: 

Very hard 150-point carbon. 

Hard 120-100 point carbon. 

Medium 80-70 point carbon. 

Heating the steel is perhaps the most important part 
of the hardener's duties, hence facilities for accomplish- 
ing it should be the best possible for the kind and quan- 
tity of work to be handled. If the amount of work is 
small and can be heated in a blacksmith's forge, the forge 
will answer. But if the quantity is large or requires 
special apparatus, special furnaces should be procured, 
because with them the cost of the work can be made 
much cheaper, and time will be saved. 

If the forge is used either in forging or hardening steel, 
the fires should be clean and deep enough to keep the 
blast of air from striking the work. Also the work 
should be covered with a layer of coal to prevent its 
contact with the air. Otherwise the oxygen will decar- 
bonize the steel and thus keep it from hardening. Steel 
will crack from sudden contraction if the fire is so shal- 
low or the steel so placed in the fire that a cold blast 
strikes it. Especially is this so if the piece has thin pro- 
jections, which owing to their small size are very sus- 
ceptible to changes in temperature. If a big piece of 
steel is to be heated it is necessary to have the fire large 
enough to heat the piece uniformly. 

Charcoal is considered an ideal fuel for heating steel 
as it is practically pure carbon, but if it is used the fire 
should be kept well supplied with new coal, or it will be 



130 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



necessary to use a strong blast, which is likely to reach 
the steel and cause it to crack. It is stated by E. R. 
Markham in his most excellent work "The American 
Steel Worker," that high carbon steel will not become 
so hard on the surface if heated in charcoal fire as if 
heated in one burning coke. The best way is to heat 
in such a manner that the steel will not come in con- 
tact with the fuel: as in a muffle furnace, a piece of 
pipe or an iron box. When, however, the work is to be 
turned in a lathe afterwards, the open fire is better be- 
cause it heats rapidly. 

Furnaces. — The muffle furnace (Fig. 166) is neat and 
easily managed. It is made to use illuminating gas, and 
can be procured in almost any 
size. The steel is placed in the 
muffle and the gas burned in a 
chamber which surrounds this 
muffle, so that the steel is heated 
by radiation from the walls of 
the muffle without direct contact 
with the products of combustion, 
and, since the door is closed, the 
steel is protected from oxidation, 
which would affect the composition 
of the steel. The gas can be so 
regulated that a very even heat 
can be maintained. The furnace 
should be made so that the work 
can be seen without opening the 
door. An ingenious smith can 
make a very good furnace adapted to burn any kind 
of fuel. 

The Gas Torch (Fig. 163) answers for heating an 
occasional small piece. The flame impinges upon the 
fire-brick and reflects the heat onto the piece which is 




Fig. 166 



CARBON TOOL STEEL 131 

held in the flame. This will heat small pieces very 
rapidly. Fire-brick can be made into an oven or muffle, 
and by the use of a torch on each side a very effective 
heater -for small work can be made. ■ 

Bunsen Burner is sometimes used to heat small drills. 

Heating Baths. — Lead, tin, glass, cyanide of potas- 
sium, and other materials are heated in crucibles to 
special temperatures, and the articles dipped into them. 
They exclude the air, prevent oxidation and decarboniza- 
tion of the steel, and produce a very uniform heat. The 
crucibles can be heated in an ordinary forge, but much 
more uniform heat can be obtained in special crucible 
furnaces heated by gas. There should be some means of 
carrying aWay the gas and fumes, especially from the 
lead and cyanide baths. Cyanide of potassium is a very 
dangerous poison, and should be used with the greatest 
care. 

Lead Bath. — Melted lead, maintained at a uniform 
temperature, is a heating bath very commonly used. It 
is melted in an iron ladle, or better in a graphite crucible. 
The lead should be pure and free from sulphur, as a small 
amount of sulphur in the bath ruins steel by^ eating away 
the surface, giving it an open, sponge-like appearance. 
The sulphur also makes the steel "hot short." The 
articles to be hardened are placed in the lead and held 
there until heated to the proper temperature. They are 
then removed and plunged into the cooling bath. There 
is some objection to lead because it sticks to the work, 
but this can be prevented somewhat if the lead is kept 
clean and free from oxide or if the work is first dipped 
into a solution of cyanide of potassium— one pound to 
the gallon of water — or into a solution of brine. The 
work must be dried before being dipped into the lead, 
for the moisture would cause the lead to sputter, and 
this likely would burn the hardener. Oxidation is pre- 



132 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



vented by placing a layer of charcoal on the surface of 
the lead. One difficulty with lead is that steel must be 
held down or it will float in the bath. The lead bath 
should be heated to and held at about the temperature 
at which the steel is to be heated. If it should rise above 
this temperature it should be cooled by placing a large 
piece of iron into it. 

Cyanide Bath. — Ferrocyanide of potassium heated 
red-hot in a cast-iron crucible makes an excellent bath 
for hardening, as it does no't stick to the work, has no 
tendency to oxidation, and the cyanide 
has a hardening influence on the steel. 
As with lead it must be chemically 
pure. Cyanide of potassium is a 
deadly poison; it should never be used 
by the inexperienced or melted in any 
way that would allow the fumes to 
escape into the room. Fig. 167 shows 
a furnace that is suitable for melting 
cyanide. 

Uniform Heating. — It should be 
remembered that pieces must be heated 
uniformly and that as the thin por- 
tions of articles with unequal sections 
heat more rapidly even in a lead or 
cyanide bath, the thick portions in some way should 
be preheated before plunging the whole piece into the 
bath. This can often be done by holding the heavier 
portions in the bath until partly heated before the 
whole piece is plunged. 

Location of the Furnace. — The location of the furnace 
or forge used for heating steel to be hardened is a very 
important matter, possibly the most important con- 
cerning the equipment. It should be placed where direct 
sun-light or any strong light will not strike either the 




Fig. 167 



CARBON TOOL STEEL 133 

forge or the operator. The ideal location is a room where 
the light will be subdued and alike from day to day, 
which is an important factor in producing uniform results 
in hardening, for in judging the temperature of the steel 
by color, the same temperature will not show the same 
color except under uniform conditions of light. When 
baths are used it is just as important to look after the 
ventilation as after the light. The room should be free from 
dampness and drafts and well supplied with fresh air. 

Heating Tool Steel. — The grain of tool steel changes 
noticeably with slight changes of temperature. When 
steel is being hardened the lowest heat possible to give 
the proper grain should be used. This temperature 
varies with the carbon content, and other hardening ele- 
ments, as well as with the make of the steel. To get 
results uniformly hard a lower carbon steel must be 
heated to a higher temperature than a higher carbon steel. 

There is a proper heat for each quality of steel; it 
generally is spoken of as cherry red. But what is this 
cherry red? Do any two people see a color exactly 
alike? The proper color at which to harden a piece of 
steel is that color which will produce the finest possible 
grain in the steel — a grain (when cold) that looks like 
very fine gray silk. At this temperature steel will be 
hardest. There is a point — ■ the decalescent 1 point — 

1 Decalescence, a phenomenon exhibited by steel when heated 
to a temperature of about 1400° F., at which point the carbon 
changes from pearlite to cementite, or hardening carbon. This con- 
dition is indicated by the heat curve failing momentarily to show 
a change of temperature, even though the supply of heat has not 
been reduced. When the piece of steel is cooling down a similar 
phenomenon occurs at a point about 50° to 100° F. below the 
decalescent point where, because of the retransformation of the 
cementite carbon back into pearlite carbon, the cooling momen- 
tarily ceases and the piece of steel actually reglows. This is called 
the recalescent point. 



134 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

at which the steel for the instant continues to absorb 
heat but does not rise in temperature. At this point 
there is a rearrangement of the carbon of the steel. The 
grain is the finest when the steel is immersed at the 
decalescent point. If the steel is heated above this tem- 
perature the grains increase in size. The larger the grains 
become when the heat is reduced below the decalescent 
point the softer will be the steel. 

The writer when using a new steel or when teaching 
the hardening and tempering of steel always tries the 
following experiment: draw the steel down fairly thin so 
that it will break easily; heat to some temperature near 
the one supposedly proper and fix the color well in mind ; 
cool the steel quickly by plunging it into water, break 
off a small piece, examine the grain and lay the piece 
aside for reference. Repeat this experiment at several 
different temperatures, always fixing the color ^in mind. 
The color which produces the finest grain after immer- 
sion is the color to which the steel should be heated 
when hardening tools from that bar. When determining 
the proper color hold the piece of steel in a dark place, 
as under the forge, in a dark corner of the coal box, or 
in an old nail keg. 

Drawing Temper. — While hardening produces the 
finest grain, it causes steel to be too brittle for many 
purposes, and in order to toughen the tools it is neces- 
sary to withdraw some of the hardness. This is done by 
reheating the tools to about 500° F. and then immersing 
them quickly. This reheating is called drawing the 
temper, or tempering. 

Rules for Heating. — 1. The steel should be heated 
uniformly or strains will be set up m the piece, causing 
cracking when hardening. 

2. Do not heat steel faster than it can be heated uni- 
formly. If the heating is forced, the light parts will be 



CARBON TOOL STEEL • 135 

heated much faster than the heavy parts. The fire must 
be so regulated that all will heat evenly. 

3. Do not let a piece heat more slowly than is neces- 
sary or soak in the fire, for it will be oxidized, decarbon- 
ized, and it will absorb impurities from the fuel. 

4. Heat the piece just as fast as it will take the heat. 

5. Do not heat the piece above the proper point and 
allow to cool in the air until the correct color is reached, 
for then only the outside of the bar is at the correct 
heat, and the inside will still be hot and will have a 
coarse grain. It should be cooled to the black and 
reheated. 

6. Steel should be hardened on a rising heat, never on 
a falling. 

7. Turn the pieces over and move them around while 
heating so that all parts will be equally exposed to the 
hottest part of the fire. 

8. Use special care with round pieces as they seem to 
crack more easily than pieces of any other shape. 

9. If pieces have heavy and light portions, heat the 
heavy parts first, as the lighter parts will heat partly by 
conduction. If it is not possible to do this, then heat in 
a slow fire. 

10. Never use a fire in which the blast can strike the 
steel, for it will crack almost invariably. To prevent 
this, build a deep fire and keep the steel covered. 

11. Do not heat with the steel exposed to the air. 
Reheating. — When steel is cooled the outer surface 

has set before the interior has cooled. This causes in- 
ternal strains often powerful enough to break the piece 
with a loud report. To remove these strains it is neces- 
sary to reheat the pieces. This can be done by placing 
them in boiling water and keeping them there until 
heated through. This has the effect of making the 
pieces pliable enough to adjust themselves internally. 



136 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

Annealing steel is softening it so that it can be worked 
by ordinary cutting tools. Annealing also counteracts 
strains set up in the piece by machining which would 
cause it to crack in hardening. The longer it takes a 
piece to cool the softer it will be. There are three ways 
of annealing tool steel. One method is to heat the piece 
to the recalescence point or a little above, allow it to 
cool in the air till black (in the dark) and then dip it 
into water, preferably soapy or oily. This is called water 
annealing. The piece should not be chilled by draft 
or by being placed on cold metal or stone. A second 
method, called cover annealing, is to pack the piece to be 
annealed in a box of lime, ashes, or fire-clay, which pre- 
viously has been heated, and allow it to stand until 
perfectly cold. Lime is the best material to use, but it 
must always be heated to drive off all dampness so that 
it will not chill the steel. 

Markham gives the following excellent method. Place 
the heated steel between blocks of 
wood, pack the blocks and work in a 
box of previously heated lime (Fig. 
168). The pieces of board will smolder 
and keep the steel hot for a long time. 
The third method, called pack annealing, is a very 
satisfactory method by which to obtain soft steel. This 
consists of packing the steel to be annealed into an iron 
box with charcoal or burnt bone. There should be a 
layer of the charcoal on the bottom, then the steel is 
placed on the charcoal. The pieces of steel must be at 
least ¥ apart; the spaces are filled with more charcoal 
and other layers added till the box is filled. Over the 
last steel there must be a layer of charcoal as thick as 
that on the bottom. The cover of the box is then placed 
on and luted with clay. The box with contents is placed 
into a furnace, heated slowly till its contents have be- 




CARBON TOOL STEEL 137 

come red, and then the furnace and its contents allowed 
to cool slowly. The cover of the box should have 
a few holes into which iron wires are placed reaching to 
the center of the box. These wires are drawn occasion- 
ally, and when one is drawn that is properly heated its 
full length, the fire is allowed to burn a few minutes 
longer and then is extinguished. 

Don'ts for Annealing. — 1. Don't overheat. 

2. Don't subject the work to the heat longer than 
necessary after it has become uniformly and properly 
heated. 

3. Don't let the temperature become anything but 
uniform. 

4. Don't let the piece heat unevenly. 

5. Don't use a packing material that will take the 
hardening elements out of the steel or introduce im- 
purities into it. 

Graphic Representation of the Changes in Carbon 
Steel. — The diagrams (Figs. 169-170) 1 show graphic- 
ally the changes produced in the size of the grains of 
steel and in the nature of the carbon as the steel is 
heated to the melting and refining points, and slowly 
and rapidly cooled from these points. 

In these diagrams time is measured horizontally 
and temperature vertically. The circles represent the 
grains of the steel; the full lines, the hardening carbon; 
and the dotted lines, the pearlite carbon. 

In (A) (Fig. 169), we start with the original bar and 
heat it to the melting point. It will be seen by the 
circles that the grains remain the same size up to 
"W," which is the decalescence point. At this point 
the grain suddenly becomes very small, but as the heat 
is increased, the grain grows in size rapidly until at 

1 Taken by permission from "Notes on Iron, Steel and Alloys," 
by Forrest R. Jones. 



138 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



the melting point the grain is much larger than in the 
original bar. Observing the lines representing the car- 
bon we see that the carbon remains in the pearlite 
form up to the point "W," but there it suddenly 
changes to the hardening form and remains thus to the 
melting point "M." If the piece is suddenly cooled 
now from M, as shown in (B), the grain will remain 
when quenched the large size that it was at M , and 




fthere 



Fie. 169 



the carbon remains in the hardening form down to the 
atmospheric temperature T. The steel in this condi- 
tion is hard, brittle, and worthless. If, however, instead 
of cooling the piece rapidly as in (B), we had cooled it 
slowly as in (C), we would have had the same large 
grains as at M and the carbon would have been in the 
hardening form until red temperature V had been 
reached, when it would suddenly have been converted to 
the pearlite form and the piece would have been soft and 



CARBON TOOL STEEL 



139 



brittle. It will be seen from this diagram that whenever 
the steel is heated to the point M, no matter how the 
piece is cooled, the grain will be coarse, and the steel 
will be brittle and useless. 

At (A) (Fig. 170), we have the bar heated up to W, 
or a few degrees above the point at which the fine grain 
is produced. (B) shows the sudden cooling from this 
point to T, and we find the grain very fine and the 
carbon all hardening. In this condition the steel is hard 
and brittle, but owing to the fine grain it is in the best 



5 
* 



w 



O 

o 



IDS 



Aa// Ae d 




Red 



.Atmosphere 



4* 






\ 



W 









Fig. 170 



structural condition for tools. By being slightly re- 
heated when in this condition (drawing the temper or 
tempering) the grain can be kept nearly the same size 
and the steel can be made tough. (C) shows the effect 
of slow cooling from W to T, or annealing. It will be 
noticed that the grains increase in size to that of the 
original bar, while the carbon is in the hardening form 
to V, and in the pearlite form to T. The steel is soft 
but brittle, but by being reheated it can be made to 
take any form possible in the original bar. (D) shows 
the effect of another type of annealing. Here the piece 



140 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

is cooled suddenly to V and then is allowed to cool 
slowly to T. The grain will retain the fine structure and 
the carbon will remain in the hardening form, but the 
steel will be soft, strong, and resilient. 

Hardening Baths. — After steel has been heated to the 
proper temperature, it must be dipped into a cooling 
solution. The more rapidly this solution will conduct 
the heat away from the steel or the more closely it will 
adhere to the steel, the harder (everything else being 
equal) will become the steel. Hence cold water will 
produce a harder steel than warm, and mercury harder 
than cold water; while substances like oil will leave the 
steel softer than the warm water. This fact allows us 
to use various cooling baths to obtain different degrees 
of hardness and toughness. For general use clear, cool 
water answers best; it is effective and cheap. It should 
be clean and dirt should not be allowed to accumulate 
on the bottom of the tank. It must be remembered, 
however, that in most cases too rapid cooling must be 
avoided, for if the outside becomes rigid before the interior 
is set the piece is likely to be placed under such internal 
strains that it will crack. For this reason the water is best 
about 60° F. 

Brine. — Another bath very much used is a saturated 
solution of salt water or brine — made by dissolving all 
the salt the water will hold. 

Oil, such as linseed, neatsfoot, or most any fish oil will 
produce excellent results on thin tools requiring a hard 
edge and tough center. They also are used for springs. 
Tallow, sperm, and lard oils produce great toughness and 
are used for springs. 

Solutions. — The following solution is much used on 
small cutting tools as taps and reamers: 

citric acid 1 lb. 

water 1 gal. 



CARBON TOOL STEEL 141 

Markham gives the following, as being recommended 
to produce hard, tough tools: 

salt i teacupful. 

saltpeter § ounce. 

pulverized alum 1 teaspoonful. 

soft water 1 gal. 



Wo tar Supply 



Acids, such as sulphuric, are sometimes used, but they 
are not recommended, as they attack the surface of the 
steel. 

Water with a Layer of Oil on its Surface is often used 
to harden high-carbon steel when tools having teeth 
that meet the body of the piece with sharp angles are 
to be made. The oil adheres to the steel at the bottoms 
of the teeth and prevents a sudden change of tempera- 
ture with the resultant cracking. 

Flowing Water. — Some pieces require jets of flowing 
water to be projected against 
a certain face, that the face 
may be hard and the body 
tough. Die faces are hard- 
ened in this way (Fig. 171). 

Tempering Colors. — 
When polished steel is heated 
an oxide is formed on the 
brightened surface which 

has a color characteristic for each temperature between 
certain limits. When steel has been hardened these 
oxide colors indicate a definite temperature and degree 
of toughness. Hence by heating the steel to the tem- 
perature required to give it the degree of toughness 
needed, or to the oxide color that represents this tem- 
perature, and then quenching the steel, we may be 
certain that it is tempered as required. The temper 
colors are as follows: 




Fig. 171 



Orcr /lou>. i 



142 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



Light straw 430° F. 

Dark " 470° F. 

Brown 490° F. 

Brown with purple spots 510° F. 

Purple '~ 530° F. 

Light blue 550° F. 

Dark " 600° F. 

Methods of Hardening. — Articles to be hardened 
generally can be divided into two classes: Class one, 
those only dipped partly into the cooling bath, the heat in 
the unplunged portion flowing to the hardened or cooled 
portion and thereby reheating and drawing the temper; 
Class two, those to be dipped entirely into the cooling 
bath and the temper afterwards drawn by some method 
of reheating. The details of the methods used in each 
class are almost as varied as the work to be hardened. 

A few examples will be given which will indicate how 
to proceed in simple cases. 

CLASS ONE 

Chisels, punches, most lathe and planer tools, and 
articles requiring a hard cutting point or edge 
and a tough shock-resisting body, generally 
fall under class 1. The cold chisel will furnish 
a good example of this class and will be 
studied in detail. By any of the heating 
methods, generally in the forges, the piece is 
.a heated to the proper temperature to a point in- 
dicated by the line (a) (Fig. 172), about 3" 
from the end and is dipped to about 2" from 
the end as indicated by the line (6) into a 
cooling bath (water) till cold. The chisel 
should be moved slightly up and down in the 
bath to counteract the tendency to crack at 
g- 172 -the W ater line, and also back and forth or 
around in a circle so that the steam formed will have 



CARBON TOOL STEEL 



143 



a chance to escape and allow the bath to come into 
direct contact with the tool. When the part in the 
bath is cool, the chisel is removed and the cooled portion 
polished with an emery 
stick 1 to remove the 
black oxide (Fig. 173). 
This will allow the tem- 
pering colors to be seen 
which indicate when the 
temper is drawn to the 
desired point. This draw- 
ing of the temper is ac- 
complished by allowing 
the heat in the portion 
of the chisel back of the 
water line (6) (Fig. 172) 
to flow to the cooled por- 
tion, there to heat and 




Fig. 173 



soften it. This heating will cause the tempering colors 
to appear; First, the light straw near the water line will 
appear, and as this moves toward the point the others 
will appear in order, — dark straw, brown, brown with 
purple spots, purple, light blue, and dark blue. When 
the purple or the light blue has reached the cutting edge 
of the chisel, all further drawing is stopped by plunging 
the chisel in the bath until it is cool. Should the chisel 
be cooled so much at the first dipping that there is not 
heat enough left to draw the temper the required 
amount, it can be reheated by being held over the 
fire. Care should be exercised not to have the tem- 
pering heat too high or the colors will run too fast and 
be too close together. In this case the chisel should 
be dipped again and withdrawn quickly, to take away 

1 An emery stick is made by gluing emery-cloth to a stick or 
by covering the stick with glue and sprinkling with emery. 



144 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



some of the heat and cause the balance to flow more 
slowly. 
Diamond Point (Lathe Tool). — Fig. 174 shows how a 





Fig. 174 

diamond point tool 
should be dipped; and 
Fig. 175, how it should 
be polished. Most of 
the other lathe took 
should be dipped in a 
similar manner, and polished the same as the cold chisel 
on one of the faces extending back from the cutting edge. 
Side or Facing Tool. — Fig. 176 shows a method of 
dipping a side tool for a lathe, which is about the ex- 





Fig. 176 



Fig. 177 



treme of class 1. As can be seen from the figure, only 
a very small portion of the tool with which to draw the 
temper is left undipped. This tool is often dipped com- 
pletely and then the temper drawn by placing it on 
a heated block of iron (Fig. 177). 



CARBON TOOL STEEL 



145 



CLASS TWO 

Taps, Drills, Reamers and Similar Tools should be 
heated to the refining temperature, in a muffle furnace 
or in an iron pipe placed in the forge fire (Fig. 178), 




Fig. 178 

and then plunged into the cooling bath and completely 
submerged. They must be moved around until cold to 
insure close contact with the bath. These tools must be 
dipped as nearly vertically as possible to prevent warping. 
Before the tem- 
per is drawn 
the scale in the 
grooves of the 
taps must be re- 
moved, by means of an emery stick or other means, and 
the surface of the drills and reamers polished so that the 
colors can be seen. The temper is then drawn by the 
tools being held in a red-hot ring (Fig. 179) or in 
the gas-pipe again, without allowing it to touch, or by 




Fie. 179 



146 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



Fig. 180 



its being moved around in heated sand till drawn to the 
proper color, which is a straw. 

Shank Milling Cutters if required to be hard all over 

are treated just as taps, 
but if the shank is to be 
left soft, they should be 
dipped to the dotted line 
(Fig. 180) and held in the 
bath at this point until the shank is cool. The tem- 
per of the cutting part is then drawn as described 
under Taps. 

End Mills are treated like the shank milling cutters 
except when they have deep recesses in the ends 
such case they should be dipped with 
the holes up (Fig. 181) and the tem- 
per drawn as in taps. If the shank 
is required to be soft, some special 
device can be used, as illustrated in 
Fig. 182. Here a sleeve that fits the 
shank loosely when cold is heated, 
slipped over it and held there till the 
shank is drawn the required amount. 
The cutter part should be held in water to prevent the 
heat running down and drawing the temper in it; care 
should be taken also not to get the heated sleeve too 
far or too tight on to the shank, as it will shrink in cool- 
ing and grip the tool so that 
it cannot be removed. 

T'slotters should have an 
iron wire (a) (Fig. 183), as 
this prevents cracking where 




Fig. 181 




Fig. 182 



the head joins the neck, since it delays the cooling at 
this point. The cooling should be done by dipping the 
piece all over and drawing the temper by reheating the 
shank as was the end mill, or it can be hardened as 



CARBON TOOL STEEL 



147 



under class 1. In any event the heat should run from 
.the shank to leave the neck blue and the cutting teeth 
a straw. 

Half Round Reamers are treated in the same way as 
other reamers except that instead of being 
dipped vertically they should be held at an 
angle (Fig. 184), the curved side down, to 
prevent warping. The shape of the piece will 
determine the angle at which the piece must 
be dipped. Knowledge of this angle must be 
gained by experience. 

Milling Cutters should be heated in a muffle 
furnace or iron tube which has a flat bottom, 
but if neither is to be had a hollow fire will lg * 
answer. They should be dipped endwise and completely 
submerged. If the cutter is large, it should be taken 
from the water before it is entirely cool and the cool- 




Wire /<"" 
Su*/oend/r>£ 




Fig. 184 

ing should be finished in oil. Fig. ^ig. 185 

185 shows a convenient way to 

dip cutters. The washer should not be any larger than 
necessary to hold the cutter, for it hinders the cooling 
where it touches the cutter. The temper is drawn by 
heating a round bar that is slightly smaller than the 
hole in the cutter, slipping the previously polished 
cutter on to the bar and revolving it slowly till it is 
drawn to the proper color at the teeth, usually a straw 
or brown. 



148 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




Fig. 186 



Hammer. — A hammer should be hard on the face 
and pene, and tough through the eye portion. The eye 
can be kept soft by packing it in clay 
or wrapping it in asbestos yarn to pre- 
vent its heating to a hardening tem- 
perature. 

The author's method is to heat the 
hammer uniformly all over to the 
hardening heat, and in place of dipping 
the whole hammer the pene is held 
half submerged in a cup of water, 
while a stream of cold water plays on 
the face till the whole hammer is cold 
(Fig. 186). This will leave the ham- 
mer in ideal condition, for there is 
no drawing of temper to be done and 
before heating there is no bother in 
covering the parts required to be soft. 
There should be something in the 
bottom 6f the cup for the pene to 
rest on so that the center of the ball 
will be flush with the edge of the cup. 

A hammer can be hardened by 
dipping it all over, and the temper 
drawn at the eye by placing in 
the eye a hot iron the shape of 
the eye. This method is used 
when the colors are desired for 
show. 

Thread Cutting Dies. — Rec- 
tangular dies made in halves 
should be heated in a muffle and 
The temper is drawn, after 




Fig. 187 




Fig. 188 



hardened in water or oil 
polishing (Fig. 187). 

Spring Dies are tempered as shown by (Fig. 188) 



CARBON TOOL STEEL 



149 







Fig. 189 



Solid, Round, or Square Dies are hardened in the same 
way as other dies. The temper can be drawn best by- 
placing the die in a heated iron frame (Fig. 189); this 
will allow the heat to flow equally from the periphery of 
the die toward the 
center, till the 
proper color is 
reached at the 
cutting teeth. 
Care must be 
taken that the 
frame is large 
enough to fit the dies loosely when cool so that it will 
not contract and grip the die as it cools. 

Counter Bores (Fig. 190) having a deep center 
hole as at (a) and other articles having holes that do 

not need to be hardened 
1 are heated for hardening 
and tempering after filling 
the holes with clay. The 
counterbore should be heated to the lowest heat that 
will cause it to harden and then it should be dipped into 
lukewarm water. The temper can be 
drawn from the shank as in class 1. 

Ring Gages. — If they can be 
hardened all over and ground to size 
and shape 1 the pieces can be dipped 
in water with the hole directly over 
or under a faucet so that a stream 
of water can be forced through the 
hole and the temper drawn by mov- 
ing it in heated sand. If the hole lg ' ' 
only requires hardening, Fig. 191, taken from "The 
American Steel Worker," shows clearly a most excellent 
1 Round pieces have a tendency to become elliptical. 



Fig. 190 




150 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

method. Here a stream of water is forced through the 
hole in the gage, cooling and hardening the sides. The 
gage is protected from the effects of the water at all 
other parts by the surrounding block and washer; which 
protected parts cool slowly and remain soft. The bulk 
of the gage, remaining soft, allows the hole to remain 
true in size and shape. 

Pieces with Holes near One Edge should be dipped 
slowly and have the hole enter the cooling bath last. 

Press Dies or Drop Forge Dies that require the working 
face to be very hard and the bulk of the block tough to 
resist shocks should be dipped in water at about 60° F., for 
a minute or so, and then raised and played upon by a 
stream of water that will cover the face of the die, until 
the block is cool. To remove all internal strains it is 
well to reheat the die in hot water after it is hard- 
ened. 

Tempering in Oil. — When it is not necessary to show 
the temper color, articles can be tempered very quickly 
by dipping them in oil maintained at the required 
tempering temperature, secured by regulating the fire so 
that a thermometer placed in the oil will stand at the 
temperature which will produce the temper desired, say 
630° F. if we wish to have the piece tough. The piece is 
dipped into the oil and held there till it is the same tem- 
perature as the bath, when it is withdrawn and cooled 
in water. !N"umerous small articles can be placed in a 
wire basket and together heated in the oil and then 
cooled. 

Thin Articles, like knife blades and slitting saws, that 
are likely to warp in hardening, are cooled between two 
heavy blocks of iron. The pieces should be heated by 
being laid on a hot plate or on the bottom of a muffle. 
When heated the pieces are placed on one of the blocks 
which has been previously treated with lard, raw linseed 



CARBON TOOL STEEL 151 

oil, or tallow, and the other plate similarly treated is 
placed on top as quickly as possible and left until the 
pieces are cold. Saws should be picked up by the center 
hole to avoid spoiling the teeth. Special tongs can be 
made for this purpose. 

Springs are first hardened by being plunged into oil or 
tallow and then the temper is drawn. The most common 
method of drawing the temper is to burn off the oil that 
adheres to the spring and then to dip it into water to 
stop further drawing. In large work it may be necessary 
to burn oil on it two or three times. This process is 
known as flashing. With springs of unequal section the 
temper is drawn in oil heated to 560° to 630° F. Care 
must be taken to prevent the oil from catching fire. 
Small springs are sometimes covered with charcoal dust 
and the temper is drawn by burning off this dust. 

Pack-Hardening. — ■ By this method articles can be 
given an extremely hard surface when dipped in oil, with 
little change in shape and but slight danger of cracking. 
The method is to pack the articles to be hardened into a 
mixture of granulated charcoal and charred leather (the use 
of bone is not advisable on account of the phosphorus it 
contains) , into boxes in a manner similar to that in pack- 
ing for pack-annealing, heat the box and contents to the 
refining temperature, and plunge the heated pieces into 
oil to cool. When the pieces have reached the proper 
temperature it can be told by wires as described before. 

Case-Hardening. — The surface of wrought iron or 
mild steel can be made exceedingly hard while the in- 
terior retains all the strength and toughness of the 
original piece. This process of making the outside or 
skin of wrought iron or mild steel into a hardened form 
of steel is called case-hardening. It can be done in two 
ways — by dipping in melted potassium ferrocyanide, or 
by packing in charcoal or bone.- 



152 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

Potassium Ferrocyanide Method. — This method is 
used when rapid work is required. It does not produce 
as deep a coating of steel as the other method, but is 
convenient and rapid. If much work is to be done the 
potassium ferrocyanide is melted in an iron pot; the 
iron is heated to a red, dipped into the melted cyanide, 
heated again to the refining temperature, and plunged 
into water. When but one or two pieces are to be 
hardened, the iron is heated to a bright red, and pow- 
dered potassium ferrocyanide is sprinkled on the parts 
to be hardened. The heat in the iron- will cause the 
cyanide to melt and cover all parts of the piece where 
hardening is desired. The piece is then reheated to the 
refining temperature and is dipped into water. 

Packing in Charcoal Method. — The pieces to be 
hardened are packed into an iron box with an equal 
mixture, by measurement, of granulated wood charcoal 
and raw bone. The packing is done as described under 
pack-annealing. Test wires should be used to tell when 
the pieces are raised to the proper heat (a good red) to 
absorb the carbon, and the time should be counted from 
'that point. The time the box should be left in the 
furnace depends upon the material and the size of the 
work. Pieces \" thick should stay about 2 hours. 
Fair-sized work requiring a hard but not very deep 
coating can be left 5 hours. As a rule a coating about 
\" deep can be obtained in from 15 to 18 hours. When 
the pieces have been heated the set length of time, the 
box is withdrawn from the fire and the pieces plunged 
into water as quickly as possible. The pieces can be 
colored by being allowed to fall from the box into the 
water, a distance of 12 to 16 inches. 

Straightening Bent Tools. — Sometimes tools will warp 
in hardening. They can be straightened by placing the 
pieces between the centers of a lathe with the bowed 




CARBON TOOL STEEL 153 

side towards the tool-post. A piece of iron should be 

placed in the post so that it will bear on the tool when 

the transverse feed is moved forward (Fig. 192). The 

tool is covered with oil and 

heated with a flame from a 

Bunsen burner with a wing 

top, till the oil begins to 

smoke; then pressure is 

applied to the tool with the 

transverse feed until the lg ' 

tool is bent slightly in the other direction, then removed 

and cooled. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

How does machinery and tool steel differ from wrought iron? 
What are the two principal classes of steel? How do they differ 
when dipped into water at a high heat? What is meant by temper? 
What is the principal hardening element in tool steel? What is 
meant by point? Why is heating one of the most important parts 
of the hardener's duties? What must be looked out for in heating 
tool steel? Why does charcoal make a good fuel? Why is a 
muffle furnace best for heating tool steel? Why is an open forge 
good for heating tool steel when it is afterwards to be turned in a 
lathe? Why must tool steel be heated uniformly? Name the 
principal heating baths. Why must they be pure? What effect 
has sulphur on the steel? What are the disadvantages of the lead 
baths? The cyanide? What are the advantages of each? Why 
should the baths be heated so that the fumes cannot enter the 
room? Describe a furnace used for a cyanide bath. How is the 
gas torch used for heating small pieces? Where should they be 
located and how? Why is their location important in obtaining 
uniform results? What effect has heating on the grain of tool 
steel? When steel is being hardened why should the lowest possi- 
ble heat be used? What causes the temperature to vary? What 
is the decalescence point? What takes place in steel heated 
above or below this point? Give a method for determining the 
proper temperature at which to harden a piece of steel. What is 
drawing temper? Give rules for heating. Why should steel be 
dipped on a rising temperature and never on a falling temperature? 
What is reheating? Why is it used? What is annealing? How 



154 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

many ways are there of annealing? Describe each. Give the 
rules for annealing. Make a diagram showing the effects on the 
size of grain and the kind of carbon produced by heating steel 
to different temperatures and slowly and rapidly cooling from these 
different temperatures. What are hardening baths? Name some. 
What is the advantage of their use? How are they used? With 
what class of work are they used? What advantage is oil on the 
surface of the water in a hardening bath? Why is flowing water 
sometimes used? What are tempering colors? How are they 
produced? What do they indicate? How many classes of harden- 
ing? Where does the heat for drawing temper come from in each 
case? Describe tempering in oil. What advantage? How are 
springs tempered? What is pack-hardening? What is case-hard- 
ening? How many methods? How do we case-harden with 
ferro-potassium cyanide? How is case-hardening done by packing 
in charcoal? How is bent work straightened? 



CHAPTER XIII 
HIGH-SPEED TOOL STEEL 

Carbon and Self-hardening or Air-hardening Steels. — 

The difference between ordinary carbon steel and self- or 
air-hardening steel is as follows: Tools made from the 
former first are hardened by being heated to redness and 
then suddenly plunged into water, and then tempered 
by some method of reheating to the desired tempering 
point and cooled again; whereas, self- or air-hardening 
steels acquire a definite degree of hardness whether 
cooled rapidly or slowly. Hence, tools made from this 
steel need only to be forged to shape, the temper being 
obtained by simply allowing them to cool in the air. 
The property of self-hardening makes tools that are 
made of this steel able to stand high temperatures while 
cutting without reducing the hardness of the tool. 

High-speed Steel. — It has been discovered recently 
that steels containing chromium and tungsten, known as 
High Speed steels, when rapidly heated to a white heat 
and then cooled steadily in a current of air, have their 
endurance increased wonderfully. 

These steels are capable of taking such heavy cuts 
and at such rapid speed that the tool will actually be- 
come red-hot. Herein is the distinction between carbon 
steel and the high-speed or self-hardening kinds. Tools 
made from the former, if so heated by working, would 
become soft and useless by having their cutting edge 
rapidly worn away, while the high-speed tools similarly 
heated are unharmed. 



156 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

High-speed steel when annealed by certain perfected 
processes can be machined easily so that it can be utilized 
to make cutters and similar tools. The greatest ad- 
vantage, however, possessed by this steel over the carbon 
steel is that there is very little danger of loss in the 
hardening bath, where so many costly tools are ruined, 
for it is only necessary to reheat such a steel and cool it 
in an air blast to cause it to regain the hardness it 
possessed before annealing. 

The Working of High-Speed Tool Steel. 1 — The for- 
ging of a high-speed tool should be done at a good yellow 
heat, 1850° F., and should never be done below a bright 
red. It is better to reheat the tool several times than to 
work it below a bright red in one heat. After forging, 
the point of the tool should be cooled in lime or ashes. 
The tool should not be plunged directly into the hot 
fire but should be heated gradually. When the tool is 
hardened, the nose of the tool is heated slowly, in a 
muffle, to 1650° F., or to a bright red and then rapidly 
to 2000° F., or to a white heat. After this the tool is 
cooled in an air blast, or, if intended for the cutting of 
soft materials, it may be cooled slowly by being set in a 
dry place. Then the tool, after grinding, will be ready 
for use. 

Annealing. — To anneal the steel it is heated in a 
muffle to a temperature of from about 1300° to 1500° 
F. and kept in the muffle at this temperature for two 
hours; then it is slowly cooled in ashes. 

Grinding. — The way in which tools are ground is of 
considerable importance, for if not properly followed it 
may injure the tool permanently by causing it to crack, 
etc. The best and soundest steels are often ruined in 
this way: 

1 Most high-speed steels require special methods of treatment 
that are best obtained from the manufacturer. 



HIGH-SPEED TOOL STEEL 157 

High-speed steels should be ground on a well-selected 
wet sand stone and the pressure should be produced by 
hand. If tools must be ground on an emery-wheel it is 
best to grind them roughly to shape before hardening. 
When this is done they will require very little grinding 
after hardening, which can be done with slight frictional 
heating so that the temper will not be drawn in any 
way, or the cutting efficiency impaired. When grinding 
tools on a wet emery-wheel, if much pressure is applied, 
the heat generated by friction will heat the tool to such 
a degree that the water playing on the steel will cause it 
to crack. 

Hardening and Tempering Specially Formed Tools. — 
When such tools as milling cutters, taps, screw-cutting 
dies, reamers, and other tools which do not permit of 
being ground to shape after hardening, are made from 
high-speed steel, they must be hardened and tempered, 
as follows : They should be heated in a specially arranged 
muffle furnace which consists of two chambers lined with 
fire-clay. The furnace should be gas, or oil-fired and so 
constructed that the gas and air enter through a series of 
burners at the back to produce a temperature of 2200° 
F. that may be steadily maintained in the lower 
chamber, while the upper chamber can be kept at a 
much lower temperature. 

The operation is as follows: The tools are first placed 
upon the top of the furnace until they become warmed 
through, placed into the upper chamber and uniformly 
heated to a temperature of 1500° F. (a bright red 
heat), and then placed into the lower chambers, where 
they remain until heated to 2200° F., or till the cutting 
edges show a bright yellow heat, at which temperature 
the surface appears glazed or greasy. The cutters, while 
the edges are still sharp and uninjured, are withdrawn 
and revolved in an air blast until the red has disap- 



158 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

peared. When the cutter has cooled to the point that 
will just permit it to be handled, it should be plunged 
into tallow heated to 200° F. The temperature of the 
tallow is then raised to 520° F., when the cutter is 
removed and plunged into cold oil. If the cutter is 
large, it can be allowed to cool to the normal tempera- 
ture in the tallow. If an air blast is not available, small 
cutters may be hardened by being plunged into oil from 
the yellow heat. 

Another very good method of tempering is by means of 
a specially arranged gas and air stove. The articles to 
be tempered are placed in the stove and heated to a 
temperature of 500 to 600° F. Then the, gas is shut 
off and the furnace and contents allowed to cool slowly. 

It is highly important that the initial heating be done 
slowly and thoroughly or the pieces are likely to be 
spoiled by warping or cracking due to unequal expansion. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

What is carbon steel? What is air hardening steel? What is 
high speed steel? Tell how each differs. Tell how to harden and 
temper tools made from high speed steel. Describe the working of 
high speed steel in the forge fire. Describe the annealing of high 
speed steel. Describe the grinding of high speed steel. 



CHAPTER XIV 

ART IRON-WORK 

Ornamental or art iron-work is so varied that it is 
impossible in a short chapter to take up more than a 




■Sauce -/o an StoAe 



Htrntess 



Sinj'e Horned £)ooo% ffo>ned 

Fig. 193 



few of the fundamentals. Therefore, only the more 
commonly recurring details will be described. 

Tools. — The tools used in art iron-work include all of 
the forge-shop tools, various small anvils, stakes and 



160 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



hammers (Fig. 193), small hand and tail vises (Fig. 194), 
flat and round nose pliers (Fig. 195), a large assortment 
of chisels (Fig. 196), and chasing or repousse tools (Fig. 




Fig. 194 
197). The shop 




Fie. 195 



should be supplied 
with files of all sizes and shapes ; such as flat, triangular, 
square, round, knife, half round, and entering or cross 
files (elliptical). Taps, dies, reamers, drills, and broaches 
are also much used. 

OPERATIONS 

All of the regular forging operations lend themselves 
to art smithing; such as flattening, upsetting, drawing 
out, and welding. The fuller and especially the swage 
find much application, while bending and welding are 
the principal parts of the work. 

Embossing, or punching, out bosses (rounded bumps), 
is done in two ways. The metal is driven out with 
swages while hot or on thin work while cold, by resting 
it on wood or lead and using the pene of the hammer. 
Large bosses or saucer-shaped projections are hammered 
out cold, in wood, lead, or pitch when the metal is thin, 
and when thick the metal is heated and the work done 
on the swage-block. This is accomplished with the pene 
of the hammer, by starting at the center and working 
toward the outside to stretch the metal and force it into 
the depression. By moving and turning the work, the 
desired shape can be made. 



ART IRON WORK 



161 




i«taam<H. __ ~ 



•S/de 




Cold 



Cow- mouth 



Spinning or Impressing. — Thin sheets are pressed by 
means of a blunt or a rounded end tool into a form that 
is rapidly spun on 
a lathe. 

Chasing and En- 
graving. — Chasing 
is forming a design 
on thin metal, such 
as the veining of 
leaves, by the de- 
pression of the sur- 
face with dull, chisel- 
shaped tools (Fig. 
197). Engraving is 
a similar operation 
wherein the design is 
cut into the metal 
with small chisels or 
gravers. 

Etching is the for- 
mation of a design 
in the metal by the 
eating away of the 
surface with an acid, 
— usually sulphuric 
or nitric. The metal that is to remain unetched is 
covered with asphaltum paint and the whole is placed in 
the acid until the design is eaten to the desired depth. 
The paint can be removed by means of gasoline or 
benzine. 

METHODS OF JOINING 

Welding, Brazing, Hard Soldering, Riveting, and 
Screwing are the common ways of joining work in art 
smithing. Welding and brazing are the best, but for 





C* n tor 



Co/oe 



Fig. 196 



162 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



the novice the most difficult. The rivet makes a good 
fastening, but it is not always possible to drive or head 

it. When a screw 
is used there are 
two methods of 
using it: first, to 
have a nut and 
join the pieces in 
the ordinary way 
(a Fig. 198); or 
second, to tap the inner piece and screw the bolt into 
it in place of the nut (b Fig. 198). 

In both riveting and screwing the pieces can be pre- 
pared in several ways (Fig. 199). 
At (a) is shown a method of join- 
ing in which one of the pieces is 








drawn down to a thin edge. At Hissfrw-y ^ 

(6) a steplike cut is made equal b ^Threaded 

in depth to the piece that is to 

be joined; (c) shows a method of crossing two pieces 

by offsetting one or both of the pieces where they 

cross; (d) shows two pieces crossed where each is cut in 

half of the thickness of the piece in the same way as in 

a half-lapped joint in woodwork. 





Fig. 199 

Fig. 200 represents a method of fitting wherein one 
bar is passed through another, the whole being either 
punched or drilled, though usually punched so as to 
spread the piece as at (a) and (6). The shape of the 
bulged or spread part shown at (a) would be finished in 





ART IRON WORK 163 

a V-shaped swage. A method called tenoning shown at 
. (c) is used much in fastening cast or turned ornamental 

pieces to the ends 

of the bars. Collars 

(Fig. 201) are very 

commonly used to 

hold two or more 

pieces together lg ' 

when they are securely fastened at some other point. 

If the collars are shrunk on, a much tighter and better 

joint is obtained. This is done 
by heating the collar to a red 
heat and quickly placing it in 
its proper position, where, upon 
cooling, it will shrink and grip 
the work very tightly. 
The Wedge is occasionally 

used in art iron-work to hold or draw pieces up tight. 
Folding (Fig. 202) is used to join thin sheet metal. 

There are three types: (a) the single fold; (b) the over- 
lapping fold; (c) the double 

fold. Pieces are folded and ^p — ^pV — — S^— 

a b c 

placed in position as shown ' _. orvr , 

+ u a i a + Fig. 202 

at a, b, c, and closed to a 

tight joint by means of a hammer or a machine called a 

seamer. 

METHODS OF MAKING THE MORE COMMONLY 
OCCURRING DETAILS 

In Fig. 203 the lines (a) are cut with either a chisel or 
a chasing tool; the small dots (6), with sharp-pointed 
punch; the large ones (c), with a blunt punch; and the 
circle (d) either with gouge-shaped chisel or with a round, 
hollow punch. Cutting away the edges as at (e) is called 
fretting and can be done with either cold-chisel or file. 



164 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




Fig. 204 



Fig. 204 shows work produced by the use of top and 
bottom swage. The work is upset at the point where 
the ornament is to be made, or else a proper sized collar 

is welded on and the or- 
nament molded to shape 
by hammering the metal 
between swages. In later 
practice such ornaments are 
cast or drop-forged and bored out, to fit tight when 
placed on the bar, when the ends of two separate bars 
are each passed halfway through the 
piece and fastened by means of pins. 

Twisting is one of the most commonly 
used details in this type of work. 
Thin pieces are usually twisted cold while the larger pieces 
must be heated. Fig. 205 shows the method of making 
a twist. The piece is gripped in a vise 
at the place that is to be one end of 
the twist, and turned by a wrench at 
the other end the proper number of 
times. When possible it is well to have 
a special wrench (Fig. 206), which fits 
the shape and size of the stock to be 
bent. With such wrench a more even 
pressure can be applied and bending the 
pieces avoided. When using an ordinary 
wrench it should be backed up with the 



Fig. 205 Fig. 206 

left hand. Straight pieces can be prevented from 

bending, while being twisted, by being placed inside 

a piece of gas-pipe, which is the same length as the 
desired twist. 




ART IRON WORK 



165 



The scroll is made as follows: The end is bent to the 
arc of a circle over the horn of the anvil (a) (Fig. 207), 
then placed on top of the anvil (b) and struck hammer 




Fig. 207 



blows in the direction of the arrow, the piece being 
moved forward continually, which cause the scroll to 
form as at (c). If the scroll bends too fast, that is, 
closes too rapidly, the hammer should strike nearer the 
anvil as indicated by arrow (x), or the end of the piece 
held in the tongs should be slightly lowered. If the 
bend is not rapid enough, the 
hammer blows must be higher up, 
as indicated by arrow (y) or the 
piece must be raised or rolled on 
the face of the anvil to make the 
scroll rest on the anvil (d), when it 
can be hammered as indicated by 
the arrow. 

When many scrolls just alike are 
wanted it is best to make a former of heavy iron and 
bend the scrolls on it. 

The Spindle Shaped Spiral Twist (a) (Fig. 208) is 
made from round rods or large wire, by two methods. 



Fig. 208 



166 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



y 



Fig. 209 



One is to coil the wire as in (b), and then pull out the 
scrolls to the proper shape by pulling the ends (x) and 
(y). The other way is to turn a piece of wood (c) to 
the proper shape, though slightly 
smaller than the desired size, and 
bend the wire around this, and after- 
ward burn out of the spiral the wood. 
The shape (a) (Fig. 209) is made 
by folding the stock, shown at (6), as 
many times as there are to be branches 
and then welding each end, (x) and 
• (y). The folds are then heated and 
given a slight twist, and at the same 
time the ends are pushed towards 
each other to cause the branches to spread apart. 

Interfacings (a) (Fig. 210) 
are made by making two 
loops in the form of a 
figure 8 and threading the 
ends of the stock through 
the loops, in a manner sim- 
ilar to the tying of a knot. 
In (6) the figure "8" is 
first made, and then the 
parts (x) are shaped, the 
ends (y) are drawn through 

the loops, ends (z) welded together, 
and the ends (y) welded to the work. 
Leaves and Ornaments (Fig. 211) 
are cut from sheet metal with shears 
or by other means, and are then 
veined with a chasing tool or chisel 
and crinkled to the desired shape by 
means of flat or round nose pliers. When many identi- 
cal ornaments are wanted, dies are often made to cut 





Fig. 211 



ART IRON WORK 167 

them from the metal by a single blow. Often the 
ends of bars are flattened into thin sheets and cut to 
the form of leaves with saw, chisel, and file. 

GENERAL PROCEDURE 

When a piece of work is to be made, as, for instance, 
that shown in Fig. 212, the first step is to make a full- 
sized drawing preferably on a board so that the measure- 
ments of the parts can be scaled 
therefrom and the pieces being 
made placed thereupon for com- 
parison. The twists (a) should 
be made, the scrolls, (6) and (c), 
bent ; and the holes (d) for screws J ^^-a 

should next be drilled. The bowl 

(not shown) should be made next, f ^JHf/U^O^*^ 
and if it is to be ornamented with 
leaves they should be cut out, 
filed to the proper shape, veined, 

crinkled, and drilled for riveting or scarfed for welding. 
Swages should be made for such parts as (e) and (/) . The 
spiral twists should be made and welded on. When the 
parts are all completed they should be joined by riveting, 
the clips (g) shrunk on and the whole straightened and 
given the final adjustment. The piece should now be 
given a coat of dull black' paint. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

What tools are used in art iron work that are not used in ordinary 
forge work? Does art work call for different operations from those 
called for in ordinary forging? What are embossing, spinning or 
impressing, chasing, engraving, and etching? What are the methods 
of joining? Name some of the reoccurring details found in art iron 
work. Describe the operation of twisting. Describe the making of 
a scroll, a spindle-shaped spiral twist, leaves, and other ornaments, 
and the process of interlacing. 




CHAPTER XV 



STEAM AND POWER HAMMERS 



Power hammers have made it possible to do much 
heavier forging than otherwise could be accomplished, 

and have enabled us to make 
small and medium sized work 
much more cheaply. 

Power hammers can be di- 
vided into two general classes: 
— Those having a piston acted 
upon by some expansive gas, 
and those driven by belts or 
linkage methods of transmitting 
power. The first class is repre- 
sented by the steam and pneu- 
matic hammers, the second in 
one way by direct-acting ham- 
mers, having the hammer head 
attached to a connecting-rod 
that connects direct to an eccen- 
tric, and in another way by the 
helve hammers in which the con- 
necting-rod from the eccentric is 
attached to a beam which is in 
reality a huge hammer handle. 
Fig. 213 shows a single frame steam hammer suitable 
for all ordinary smith's work. With this hammer the 
blow can be regulated with the utmost nicety both as 
to speed and force. It can be stopped and started in- 




Fig. 213 



STEAM AND POWER HAMMERS 



169 



stantly, and can be made to deliver either a succession of 
rapid blows or a slow single thud. The size of steam 
hammers is rated by the weight of the moving parts; 
i.e., the tup, piston, and piston-rod. Thus a 1000-lb. 




Fig. 214 

hammer is one in which these parts weigh 1000 lbs. 
In rating hammers no account is taken of the steam on 
the top of the piston. Fig. 214 * shows a section of the 
cylinder of a hammer with a combined self-acting and 
hand-operated valve gear. With the self-acting gear the 
hammer can be made to give continuous blows, light or 



From Nelson's Loose-Leaf Encyclopedia. 



170 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 

heavy, and quick or slow, as long as the steam is on. 
A single dead blow can be struck at any time with the 
hand-operated gear. The anvil blocks of steam ham- 
mers pass through the base and rest upon pine blocks on 
a concrete foundation. The hammer in Fig. 213 has a 
flat face along its piston to prevent it turning around. 

Operations. — Steam enters the chest at "S" (Fig. 214) 
and is admitted to the regulating valve port (C) by the 
opening of the starting valve (A). This is accomplished 
by a horizontal movement of the handle (B). The 
regulating valve (D) is of the piston type, and by moving 
this valve up or down the steam entering at port (C) can 
be made to flow either to the upper or lower steam port 
(S.Pi) or (S.P2) respectively. The dotted lines show 
the extreme travel of the valve. When the steam enters 
through the port (S.P 2 ), the piston carrying the hammer 
moves up and the steam above the piston exhausts 
through port (S.Pi) and out at (E). On the reverse 
stroke the travel of the steam is from (C) around (D) 
and through (S.Pi) to the upper part of the cylinder. 

The exhaust is out through (S.P2) and up through 
the piston valve (V), which for this purpose is hollow, 
to the exhaust pipe. The hammer is worked by hand 
by moving the handle (L) up or down. This brings the 
valve (D) in position to admit the steam either above 
or below the piston and the piston and hammer descend 
or rise under the action of the steam. To strike a dead 
blow the lever is pressed down. (L) is not used when 
the hammer is self-acting. The hammer is made self- 
acting by causing the curved lever to work about the 
movable fulcrum ( H) kept in contact with the roller 
(R) on the hammer head by the spring (M), which is 
attached to the short arm of the lever and the frame of 
the hammer. As the piston ascends and draws up the 
head, the lever (F) is moved to the right and the valve 



STEAM AND POWER HAMMERS 



171 



stem (N) is lifted by the movement of the short lever 
arm so that the valve (D) is in position to allow steam 
to enter the upper port (aS.Pi) and bring the piston 
down again. As the piston and head move down the 
spring forces the lever (F) to the left, causing the valve 
(D) to descend. This allows steam to enter (S.P 2 ) to 
cause the piston to rise. The length of the piston 
stroke is regulated 
by changing the 
position of the ful- 
crum ( H) through 
the lever (T) — 
position (P) giving 
the longest stroke 
and (Q) the short- 
est. 

Compressed air 
can be used in 
hammers like the 
above in place of 
steam, and in this 
case they are 
called pneumatic. 

Fig. 215 shows a section of the Bechi pneumatic 
hammer which acts as follows: By the lowering of the 
compression piston (c), the ram (d) is forced upwards 
by the injection of compressed air into the ram cylinder 
(e) underneath the top of the ram and by the vacuum 
in chamber (g) above the ram, produced by the descend- 
ing piston (c). Thus there are two forces acting jointly 
to raise the ram. As the piston (c) ascends, the ram 
(d) is forced down by the flow of the compressed air 
into the ram cylinder (e) above the ram and the suction 
in the ram cylinder (e) underneath the top of the ram 
caused by the ascending of the piston (c). These two 




Fig. 215 



172 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



forces are augmented by the compression in the inner 
ram chamber (/) which is created by the force of the 
ascending ram. Thus three downward forces act when 
a blow is struck. 

Fig. 216 shows a Beau dry hammer which will illus- 
trate the type in which 
the connecting-rod con- 
nects the hammer andi 
eccentric. The opera- 
tion of this hammer is 
very simple. By pres- 
sure of the foot on the 
treadle at the bottom 
an idler pulley is caused 
to tighten the belt on 
the driving pulley. 
This drives the eccen- 
tric which operates the 
hammer. The force 
and speed of the blow 
is regulated by the 
pressure of the foot on 
the treadle. 

Fig. 217 shows a 
helve type hammer. 
No description of this 
hammer is necessary 
more than to say that 
it operates by foot treadle to throw in a friction clutch. 
The tighter the clutch is held in, the faster and harder 
the hammer will strike. 

Foundations. — All power hammers should be set on 
concrete foundations. The anvils on all except the very 
smallest are separate from the hammer frame and 
should be mounted on a separate foundation, so that 




Fig. 216 



STEAM AND POWER HAMMERS 



173 




Fig. 217 



heavy blows will not injure the frame. The anvil 
foundation should be capped with heavy timbers to give 
the anvil an elastic support. 

Tools. — There are only a few tools used with a 
power hammer and 
they are very simple. 
Tongs should grip the 
work solidly; for the 
flat work the box tongs 
(Figs. 40 and 41) should 
be used, and for round 
work those in Figs. 43 
and 45. The chisels for 
power hammer work 
differ from those for 
hand work. Fig. 218 (a) shows a hot chisel, (6) one for 
nicking cold stock, (c) one for cutting square corners, and 
(d) one for cutting round corners. The blades are made 
of tool steel while the handles are either tool steel drawn 
out of the same piece as the blade or are wrought iron 
welded on. As it is not always possible to hold the 
chisels in just the right position in order to save the 

hands from jar and 
prevent breaking 
handles, the handles 
are made somewhat 
thinner at " x. " This 
will allow the handle 
to spring so that the 
blade can adjust it- 




Fig. 218 



self. The cutting edge of the chisels are left blunt as 
shown in the section at "a" (Fig. 219). They should 
never be sharpened as in "6" since the force of the 
hammer blow is very great. The shape for general 
work is shown at "a," while "c" and "d" show edges 



174 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




ground for special work. Round bars of iron or steel 
usually take the place of fullers. Fig. 220 shows a type 
of fuller used for some classes of work. The swages 
used up to 4" are generally of the 
spring type (Fig. 63). For larger 
sizes the bottom swage is like Fig. 
221. It is made with three projec- 
tions one "a" to fit the hardie 
hole in the anvil and the other two 
to straddle the block. The top swage is held in the 
hand as in hand forg- 
ing. Fig. 222 shows 
a tool for making 
tapers. Blocks of 
steel of various sizes 
and shapes are made use of for bending, offsetting, and 
the like. 

Uses of the various tools. The cold cutter or nicking 
tool (6) (Fig. 218) is made short and stubby to give it 
strength. Its shape is that of an equilateral triangle or 
nearly so. With it the cold bars are nicked on two or 
more sides so that they can be broken. The hot cutter 
(Fig. 218a) can be held either to cut the stock off 
squarely leaving the end of the piece from which it was 
cut, bulged in the middle, or 
it can be held so that both 




Fig. 220 



Fig. 221 




Fig. 222 



Fig. 223 



pieces will be bulged in the middle. In either case the 
cut is started by holding the cutter straight and cutting 
part way through on all sides. If the cutter is not held 
straight when starting the cut, as shown at "a" (Fig. 223), 
it will be knocked down as shown at "6" (Fig. 224). 



STEAM AND POWER HAMMERS 175 

If it is not desired to have one piece with square end, 

the cutter can be driven through as started, but if the 

square end is desired, after cutting all sides, the cutter 

should be tipped as at (6) Fig. 

223 and driven through. It can // 

be seen readily that edge "x" M ,„,f „,. _jCIII~2L 

Fig. 223 will make a square face I , -■,■-'■. \ \_ I 

on portion (y). When cutting # o 

large pieces the chisel should be lg ' 

driven nearly through the stock as at (a) Fig. 225. The 
piece is then turned over and a piece of rectangular steel 

placed edgewise directly over 
the cut u b. " Then with one 
blow of the hammer the bar 
can be driven through and 
both pieces left with smooth 




a 



— i i \ /— f\ Dotn pieces lett witn smootn 

S ) 1 I \ jk faces, as at "c"; whereas if 

c d the chisel had been used to 

-pi- 99 r 

6 ' " make the last cut, the stock 

would have been as at (d). 

Fullers. — The ordinary hand fuller, especially the 
bottom one, finds little use with the hammer. When 
fullering is to be done requiring top and bottom fullers, 
two round bars of steel are used 
(a~a in Fig. 226) . When one essen- 
tially straight edge is desired, full- 
ering on one side is done with a top 
fuller similar to Fig. 220, and if the 
ordinary shape is desired it is done lg ' 

with a round bar or ordinary fuller with a flexible handle. 

Swages are worked in a manner similar to hand work 
and, as stated before, up to 4 /r the spring swages are 
usually used. The larger sizes differ from the hand 
swages only in the method of holding them on the 
anvil, explained above. 




176 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 




Fig. 227 



Taper Work. — Owing to the construction of the 
hammers only parallel sides can be worked without the 
aid of the special tool (Fig. 222). In Fig. 227 at (a) is 

shown a tool held with the 
curved side to the work and 
the piece drawn out and 
tapered by the fullering ac- 
tion of the curved surface 
at (6). The tool is then 
turned over so that the flat 
face levels off the bumps and makes ' a smooth tapered 
surface. 

Bending or Offsetting is accomplished by placing the 
work between the steel blocks (a and b, Fig. 228) and 
hitting a blow with the 
hammer. The piece will 
be bent as shown at (c). 

Drawing Out. — The 
hammer is the most useful 
tool for drawing out stock. lg ' 

The same care must be observed in drawing down to 
round as in performing a similar operation with a hand- 
hammer. It must be drawn down square first, then oc- 
tagonal, and so forth until it is round. If a square piece 

gets out of shape, as 
(a) in Fig. 229, it can 
be trued up again by 
turning and striking as 
at (6), rolling it over 
slightly and hammering it to shape (c) and squaring and 
sharpening the corners by a few blows first on one side 
and then on- the other. Care must be taken to strike a 
blow that is heavy enough to work the metal all through 
the cross section of the piece so that the middle will be 
bulged as at (a) in Fig. 230, not hollow as in (6) or the 




of b 

Fig. 229 



Fig. 230 




STEAM AND POWER HAMMERS 177 

end of the piece will become cupped and the bar will split. 
In case of a piece that is too short to straddle the 
anvil in drawing down in the middle between the two 
shoulders, the piece is placed on a block 
that it will straddle and a similar block is 
placed on top of the work as in Fig. 231. 
If the piece is to be flat on one side, the 
flat side can rest directly on the anvil. 

Upsetting. — Short pieces can be upset 
with the hammer very nicely. Care should 
be taken to have the blow heavy enough to work the 
piece throughout. 

Press. — On very heavy work the hydraulic press is 
taking the place of the hammer because a more uniform 
working of the metal can be effected by it. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

What classes of work are power hammers used on? How many- 
classes of hammers? Name the different types of each class. Make 
a sketch and describe the operation of the steam hammer. How are 
the blows varied in force and rapidity? What is a helve hammer? 
How is a steam hammer rated? What advantage has the Bechi 
hammer? Describe the chisels for the power hammer. What pe- 
culiarity of handle? Why are the anvils set on a separate founda- 
tion from the hammer? Why are the foundations capped with heavy 
timbers? What kind of tongs are used with a power hammer? Why 
are spring swages used? What is commonly used in place of fullers? 
Describe the various methods of cutting off stock with power ham- 
mers. How is bending and offsetting performed? How is work 
drawn out under power hammers? Is the power hammer useful for 
upsetting? Why must stock be given a blow hard enough to work 
it throughout? Why is the press superseding power hammer work? 



CHAPTER XVI 
CALCULATIONS 

It is often necessary to know exactly the size or 
length of a piece of stock to be used to make a forging. 
This information can be best obtained by calculation. 

These calculations fall into two classes: Class A, in 
which the length only is to be found or where stock of 
a known size is simply to be bent; and class B, in 
which the size and section of a piece is changed by 
drawing out or upsetting. In this case the calculations 
depend upon the volume. 

Class A, in which bending only takes place. 
The first case in this class will be that of an unwelcled 
ring (Fig. 232). If the outside circumference is figured, 
the length will be found to be 2.75" 
(diam.) X 3.1416 = 8.64" (circumference 
= diameter X t) and the inside diam- 
eter will be 2" X 3.1416 = 6.28". Neither 

one of these lengths will give a ring of 2" 
Fig. 232 . 

diameter, for the one will be too large and 

the other too small, as it has been found that when a 

piece of iron is bent, the outside stretches and the 

inside compresses. This being the case, there must be 

a place that neither stretches nor compresses; this is at 

the middle of the piece as shown by the dotted circle. 

If this part of the piece does not change in length in 

bending, it is evident that the circumference of this 

circle is the proper length for the stock to make this 

ring. Thus 2.375" X 3.1416 - 7.4613" or 7-L§" is the 




CALCULATIONS 



179 




required length, assuming there is no loss in the fire, 
and there should be none in the case of bending a 
ring. In case the ring is to be welded there should 
be added § the diameter of 
the stock for lapping. The 
blacksmiths' rule, which gives 
very close results, is as fol- 
lows: length of stock for an 
unwelded ring is - 2 T 2 - X inside 
diameter + 3 X width of 
stock. 

Chain Link (Fig. 233) 
gives a slightly different example, as it is a combi- 
nation of circular ends and straight sides. The two 
ends together will make a complete circle, the length 
of which is figured as in the case of the ring above, 
1.375" X 3.1416 = 4.32". As the sides, being straight, 
change in no way, by adding twice the distance be- 
tween the end centers or 2", the total length is found 
to be, 4.32" + 2" = 6.32". To this should be added 
about f" for welding. 

Arcs of Circles. — ■ The figure 8 (Fig. 234) presents a 
case almost like the link; only in this case the ends are 

arcs greater than half a 
circle. The length of each 
circular portion is found by 
the following rule: 

Number of degrees in the 
arc X diameter X 0.0087 = 
circular arc. To this is 
added twice the distance between points of tangency. 

Example. — Degrees in arc 30 + 30 + 180 = 240. 
Diam. [f = .9375. 

2(240 X .9375 X .0087) + 2 X If =7.16 or 7&. 




Fig. 234 



180 



FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 



Square Bend. — In the case of the square (Fig. 235), 
to obtain the length all that is necessary is to add the 
inside lengths of the legs and the width of the piece the 

way it is bent or in the case of the 

figure shown. 



3s T 

I t 
'It 



1 



4" + 6" + 1" = 11". 



1 



Fie. 235 



Class B, in which the section changes 
in size or shape. 

Drawing from Section of One Size to a Similar Section 
but of Smaller Size. — For illustration take the problem: 
How much §" square stock will be necessary to produce 
the piece shown by Fig. 236. The first step is to get the 
volume of the finished piece which is §" X f" X 6" = 
0.84". The volume of 1" in 
length of the §" X \" stock „ 
is next determined as 0.5" X l__ 
0.5" X 1" = 0.25 cu. in. It 
will now take as many inches 
of the Y square stock as the number of times 0.25 cu. 
in. is contained in 0.84 cu. in., or 3^", or 3f|". 

Fig. 237 is a similar case, only each part, A, B, C, D, 
are considered as separate problems which must each be 



rs gy?"±r.r 
Y 



Fig. 236 




Fig. 237 

added for the final result. The exercise is to be made 
out of 3" XI" stock. The problem is how much of this 
stock is to be taken. For A, 4" will be needed; for B, 
the length is obtained as above, 3" X 2" X 1" =6 cu. in. 
The volume of one inch of length of the stock is 3" X 



CALCULATIONS 181 

1" Xl"=3 cu. in., therefore 6 cu." -f- 3 cu." = 2, hence 
2" will be needed. The volume of C is (1" X 1" X 
0.7854") X 3" = 2.356 cu. in. which, divided by 3 cu. in., 
gives 0.7854. Therefore 0.7854 inches is needed. 

D = (f" X f" X 0.7854) X 5" -*■ 3 cu. in. = 0.7363, 
or 0.7363". The total length will be 

4" + 2" + 0.7854" + 0.7363" or lW. 

The lengths in these last two examples are for cases in 
which there are no losses by scaling or otherwise. A 
small amount determined by experience should be added 
in each case to make up the loss. 

Weight of a Forging. — It is often desired to know the 
weight of a forging before it is made. This can be 
obtained by calculating the volume of the piece in cubic 
inches and multiplying this volume by 0.2779 if of 
wrought iron and by 0.2936 if of steel. As an example, 
take the forging of Fig. 237 and consider it as made of 
steel. The volume of the parts determined as above are 
12" + 6" + 2.356" + 2.3" = 22.656 cu. in., which multi- 
plied by 0.2936 = 6.7 lbs. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

Why is it necessary to calculate the size of stock or the length 
of a piece? How many cases are there? What does the second case 
involve? How are the weights of forgings obtained by calculation? 
What is the neutral axis? 



APPENDIX 

A COURSE OF EXERCISES 

In this course of study it has been the aim to have 
each exercise bring out a principle of forgework. In a 
few cases exercises have been inserted for the practice 
and skill that it is believed they develop. 

Example 1. Drawing out. — Stock, Norway iron 
¥ X V X 4" long. 

Explanation. One end of the stock is to be drawn 
down to f" square until it is 5" or a little more in 



^a 



&' 



r i3s> 



Hfl 



/n 



length. Five inches of this §" square portion is then 
to be cut off on the hardie and both ends trued. The 
finished piece (Fig. 1 A) must be smooth, true to size, 
square in section and straight. 

Operation. Is fully covered in Chapter V, page 62. 

Example 2. Upsetting. — Stock, Norway iron \" x 
¥ X 5" long. 

Explanation. The piece is to be upset to 3" in length. 
The finished exercise (Fig. 2 A) must be sound, square, 
uniform in section, straight and smooth. Determine by 
calculation the length of the sides x. 

Operation. Is fully covered in Chapter V, page 64. 



184 



APPENDIX 



•8 



A 



□3 



c4 



L_] 




A COURSE OF EXERCISES 185 

Caution. Have the stock at a white or welding heat. 
Do not work it after it has cooled below a bright red. 
Strike squarely on the stock and have it rest squarely 
on the anvil. Hold tightly in a pair of tongs that fit 
the piece. If the piece bends, straighten it at once. 
(Further blows will not upset but will cause it to bend 
more.) If the ends upset more rapidly than the middle, 
cool them slightly by rapidly placing first one end in 
water and then the other. If this is not done rapidly 
the body of the stock will be cooled. Fig. 2 B shows 
method of cooling. 

Example 3. Drawing out to Various Sections. — Stock, 
Norway Iron \" round, 6" long. 

Explanation. The round section is to be drawn down 
to a square, the square to an octagon, and the octagon 
to a round point. The completed exercises must agree 
with Fig. 3 A. 

Operation. True one end so it will be at right angles 
with the length of the stock, and make a light center 
punch mark 2" from this end. Holding the trued end 
in the tongs bring the punch mark over the round edge 
of the anvil and strike one blow. (Fig. 3 B) . Make a 
quarter turn and repeat the blow. Continue turning and 
striking until four fuller marks are made. (Fig. 3 B). 
From these marks draw the stock down to f" square. 
Lay off 4" from the trued end and mark the four corners 
as just described for the sides and produce the octagon 
by hammering down the corners. Again lay off 6" from 
the trued end and draw out the point, first to a square 
(Fig. 3 C) and then to a round (Fig. 3D). If there is 
excess length, cut off as shown in Fig. 3 E. 

Example 4. Bending. — Stock, Norway Iron f " 
round, 11" long. 

Explanation. Each end of the stock is to be bent so 
that the piece will form the figure "8" shown in Fig. 




186 APPENDIX 

4 A. The finished exercise must be smooth, true to 
dimensions, and lie flat. 

Operation. True both ends as described for upsetting 
long pieces, page 65. 
Lightly center punch 
at the exact center. - 
Bend the end as de- 
scribed, page 71. 

Caution. As there is 
little opportunity to smooth the work by hammering, 
the stock must not be heated hot enough to scale at 
any time. Never strike the stock directly over the 
anvil as that will flatten the stock and have no bending 
effect. 

Example 5. Bending to Circle. — Stock, Mild Steel f " 
diameter, 7§" long. 

Explanation. The piece is to be bent to a circle. 
The finished piece (Fig. 5 A) must be free from hammer 
Vino marks, a true circle and lie 

flat, and the ends must be 
parallel where they meet. 

Operation. Bevel the ends 

as shown at Fig. 5 B and 

bend as directed on page 71. 

Example 6. Gate Hook. — 

(Twisting.) Stock, Mild Steel 

|" diameter, 4f" long. 

* •"■ Explanation. The finished 

piece must be smooth and agree with the form and 

dimensions shown in Fig. 6 A. 

Operation. Draw down each end of the stock as 
shown- in Fig. 6 B and bend as described on page 72. 

Caution. In making the bends be careful not to 
strike the iron directly over the anvil. After the stock 
has been fastened in the vise for twisting, the work must 




A COURSE OF EXERCISES 



187 



be done rapidly, for the vise absorbs heat from the stock 
near it which will cause the twist to be uneven. Keep 
the stock as straight as possible while twisting. 




Example 7. Staple. — Stock, Mild Steel f " diameter, 
3f" long. 

Explanation. The finished piece is to be a well-shaped 
staple true to the dimensions (Fig. 7 A). The points 
must be even and " in wind." 

Operation. Shape the points, and then bend as ex- 
plained on page 69. 

Caution. Care must 
be used in heating the 
stock so as not to burn 
it, as small stock heats 
very rapidly. 

Example 8. Flat Bend 
and Punching. — Stock, 
Mild Steel §" X 1 X 6". 

Explanation. The 
stock is to be bent to a 
right angle and holes for 
screws punched and 

counter punched. The piece must be smoothly finished, 
the legs at right angles and of correct length and all 
holes true to dimensions (Fig. 8 A). 

Operation. The piece is bent as explained on pages 
68 and 69 and the holes punched as shown on page 79. 




7/F. 



188 



APPENDIX 



Explanation. 



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J), hole. 



Vl£-+A 



8# 



Example 9. Fuller Piece. — (Forging for tap wrench.) 
Stock, Norway Iron \" x 1" X 4". 

The stock is to be fullered with top and 
bottom fullers, the por- 
tion between the fuller 
marks to have the cor- 
ners rounded, and the 
arms (a and h) drawn 
out to a round section 
and to the dimensions 
given in Fig. 9 A. 
Operation. The fullering is explained on page 84 and 
the drawing out on page 62. 

Example 10. Door Pull. — (Fuller and set hammer 
piece.) Stock, Norway Iron |" x 1" X 5". 

Explanation. The stock is fullered 1" from each end 
and the part in between drawn down to a round section, 



Q> 







the ends shaped, holes punched for screws and the 
center part bent to proper shape. The piece must be 
true to dimensions (Fig. 10 A) and filed to a blue. 

Operation. The fullering is done with a top and 
bottom fuller as explained on page 84. The ends 
are set down with the set-hammer as explained on 
page 87 and given the pear shape with the hand- 
hammer. 



A COURSE OF EXERCISES 



189 



Filing to a Blue. Heat the piece to a dull red and 
rapidly file it all over until the blue (oxide) color appears. 
Then cool in water. 



>|We., 




/o/i 



Example 11. Hammock Hook. — Stock, Norway Iron 

A" X 1" X 21". 

Explanation. A strong well-shaped hook is to be 
made having a smooth finish and true to dimensions 
(Fig. 11 A). 

Operations. The piece is fullered at the middle with 
top and bottom fuller (page 84) and one end drawn out 




to |" round (page 63). The other end is set down 
and spread out with the set-hammer as explained on 
page 87. To form the ball, place on the anvil so that 






190 



APPENDIX 



the stem projects about f" and with a set-hammer, set 
down as shown in Fig. 11 B, to the shape shown in Fig. 
11 C. The ball is then made as shown in Fig. 11 D and 
11 E. The holes punched and the piece bent to shape. 
Example 12. Split Piece. — Stock, Norway Iron \" 
X 1" X 3". 

Explanation. 
to form a fork 



/Z/t 



The stock is to be split and opened out 
The taper must be uniform, the piece 
smoothly finished and true 
to dimensions (Fig. 12 A). 

Operation. The stock 
should be laid out and 
fullered (page 84) as shown 
in Fig. 12 B and split as 
explained on page 77 and the 
parts drawn out (page 62). 
The exercise admits of 
wide variation in design. 
Such articles as hooks, oar- 
locks for boats, and spurs 
are suggested. The number 
and length of the tines can 
be increased and a pitch fork or rake be made. 

Example 13. Weldless Ring. — Stock, Norway Iron 

Y x l" x 3". 

Explanation. The stock is to be split and opened to 
form a ring, true to dimensions (Fig. 13 A), smooth and 
free from cracks. 

Operation. Upset the ends so they will be wider but 
no thicker than the original stock (Fig. 13 B) and round 
the ends as shown by dotted lines. If the piece is held 
on the horn of the anvil near the point while the ends 
are being rounded the piece will be fullered at the 
middle as shown in 13 C and should leave the piece about 
the correct size, but if it is still too wide through the 




A COURSE OF EXERCISES 



191 



center, fuller with a f" top and bottom fuller to dimen- 
sions in Fig. 13 C. Punch holes (a) and split as shown 




/3D 



/3£ 



JUv 



a 



in Fig. 13 C. See page 77. Open by driving a punch 
through the split. Place on the horn and bring to the 
circular shape as shown in Fig. 13 D and 13 E. 

Example 14. Edge Bend. — Stock, ¥ x 1" X 6|" 
Norway Iron. 

Explanation. The stock is to be bent edgewise to a 
right angle with a sharp cor- 
ner on the outer side, which 
is the essential feature of the 
exercise. The finished piece 
must not have any cracks in 
the corner and must be true 
to dimensions. Fig. 14 A. 

Operations. All steps are 
fully explained on pages 72 
and 73. 

Example 15. Grab Hook. — Stock, 



(O 



Nh 



/4 R 



Norway Iron 



8 * 



192 



APPENDIX 



Explanation. Stock to be finished to form hook with 
punched eye. It must be smoothly finished and agree 
with the dimensions in Fig. 15 A. 



CS<D 




-%> 



Sj> 







f'H 



Operation. Upset one end to f" square (Fig. 15 B). 
Flatten this upset portion to §" thick (Fig. 15 C) and round 
end as indicated by the dotted lines, punch \" hole for 
eye (Fig. 15 C). Complete eye by hammering stock 



A COURSE OF EXERCISES 



193 



around the hole to a circular section over the horn (Fig. 
15 D), swinging the stock backward and forward and up 
and down as shown by arrows in Fig. 15 D. Draw out 
the other end to a blunt point as indicated by the dotted 
lines (Fig. 15 C). Bend the eye and point back (Fig. 
15 E). Bend to the required hook shape. If the sharp 
edges become flattened in bending they can be brought 
back to shape on the horn. 

Example 16. Nail. — Stock, Norway Iron f " round, 
about H" or 2" long. 

Explanation. This exercise is to give practice in the use 



(0 




/6 B 



/6/7 



/6C 



of the heading tool. To get the stem and head concen- 
tric make to form shown in Fig. 16 A. 

Operation. Draw out about 1\" of the stock with 
set-hammer as shown in Fig. 16 B to the form shown in 
Fig. 16 C and round so it will just pass into the heading 
tool. Then make head following the directions given on 
page 88. 

Note. The point should be made before the head is 
formed. 

Example 17. Hexagon Head Bolt. — Stock, Mild Steel 
¥ round, 6j" long. 

Explanation. The finished piece shown by Fig. 17 A 
must be to size and dimensions, the stem must be 



194 



APPENDIX 



straight and at right angles to the head and concentric 
with it. If the proper amount of stock is not secured 
in the head, the proper thickness should be maintained at 
the expense of the other dimensions. 




/in 



Operation. Follow the directions on page 88 to make 
the head and on pages 88 and 89 for shaping it. 

Example 18. Square Nut. — Stock, Norway Iron f " 

xl". 

Explanation. The square nut shown by Fig. 18 A 
is to be made. In case there is too much stock, obtain 
the proper thickness at the expense of the other dimen- 
sions. Adjacent sides must be at right angles to each 
other and at right angles to the faces. 

Operation. Punch §" hole in the exact center of the 
piece. Place on mandrel (Fig. 18 B) and with heavy 




blows bring to size and shape. To true the faces hold 
in narrow tongs (Fig. 18 C). 

Example 19. Hexagonal Nut. — Stock, Norway Iron 
f" X 1" any convenient length. 



A COURSE OF EXERCISES 



195 



Explanation. The nut is to be finished to size and 
shape shown in Fig. 19 A. Faces to be at right angles 
to the sides, and the sides to 
form a perfect hexagon. 

Operation. Cut the stock 
as shown by Fig. 19 B, bend 
as shown by Fig. 19 C while 
quite hot, and strike a heavy 
blow to produce the form 
shown by Fig. 19 D. Bend 
as shown by Fig. 19 E and 
strike to produce the form 
Fig. 19 F. Punch and break 
from stock and finish on 
mandrel. 

Example 20. Ice Tongs. 
— Stock, Norway Iron f " x 
§" x 14" (2 pieces). 

Explanation. The stock is 
to be drawn with sledge (or 
power hammer) to approxi- 
mately the size shown in Fig. 
20 B and finished to exact 
size with hammer, flatter and 
swage. The handle and blade 
should be bent to shape, the 
hole punched and the parts 
riveted together to form a 
well-shaped strong pair of ice 
tongs. 

Operation. Draw out enough 
of one end to r V diameter 




which will stretch to lOf" long. 



Draw out the balance of the 
B and smooth with flatter. 



Smooth with swage- 
stock to dimensions in 20 
Bend handle as shown 



196 



APPENDIX 



in 20 C, shape blades, punch eye and rivet and case- 
harden the points. 

Example 21. Welding. — Stock, Norway Iron f" X 
1" x 24" long. 

Explanation. The stock is folded to make three 
thicknesses and welded to a solid piece and brought 



n n 




Z03 



down to f" square section. To test the weld Fig. 21 A 
is made after cutting off the imperfect ends. (The rest 
of the bar can be used for Example 26.) 

Operation. Lay off as shown in 21 B, fold as in 21 C, 
and weld. Bring down to f" square section. Cut off 
imperfect ends, fuller with top and bottom fullers \\" 
from end and draw down to §" square. (See 21 A.) 



A COURSE OF EXERCISES 



197 



Lay off center portion 1§" and fuller all around the stock. 
Draw down to \" round and then form hexagon. Cut off 

excess stock so as to have the piece the correct length. 

« 



P 



D 



*- /£ — t- 



>:-4 CfJ 



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Ztf? 



ax: 



Z//3 



^ 



7£ 



£ 



%i c 

Example 22. Chain Link. — Stock, Norway Iron f" 
diameter, 6§" long. 

Explanation. Three links of a chain are to be made 
for Example 22 but before handing in for credit the three 
exercises following are made and joined to them by 
additional links. 

Operation. Fully explained on page 95. 




•OQQ 



c 



•OCO 






4 




Example 23. Ring. — Stock, Norway Iron f " diameter, 
W long. 

Explanation. A ring is to be made, trued up and 
joined to Example 22 with an additional link of dimen- 
sions of 22 A. 



198 



APPENDIX 



Operation. Proceed exactly as when working the 
link. After welding make as nearly circular as possible 
on the horn of the anvil and true on the large mandrel. 
Join to Example 22 with additional link. 





Z4-B 




Z4-R 



2*C 



Afanc/re/ C-* 




6 \ Hnvil \ \ Anvil \ 

d 



2+D 




14? 



Z4G 



Example 24. Swivel. — Stock, Norway Iron f" x 
f" x 3|" and f" round 5" long. 

Explanation. A swivel is to be made (Fig. 24 A) and 
added to the Example 22 with an additional link. 



A COURSE OF EXERCISES 



199 



Operation. Center punch at the exact center of the 
stock and fuller on one side f" deep and so the part 
remaining between the fuller marks will measure a full 
f" square (Fig. 24 B). With top and bottom fullers, 
fuller yV' deep on the adjacent sides, the same distance 
from the center. Draw out the ends to f" round. 
Drill hole (a) (Fig. 24 C). Heat white hot and place on 
special mandrel (Fig. 24 D), and bend the rounded parts 




r\ 



<£ 



Z5R 




a 



BZ7£ 



ZS3 



>«5* 



*J- 




(a) as indicated by the dotted lines, and round the 
portion (b) by hammering the corners. Smooth faces (c) 
and (d) with a file. 

To Make the Eye. Place the f" round stock in a 
swage and hammer each end to half round until drawn 
out 1§". (Fig. 24 E). Bend as shown by Fig. 24 F. 
Take welding heat on part (a) (Fig. 24 F) and weld, 
striking close to the eye first. Draw to f" round. Cut 



200 



APPENDIX 



off end (a) so that about \" will project through the 
swivel and rivet. When riveting hold the eye in the 
vise. Turn the swivel to keep it from being riveted too 




/"-> 



tightly. Cut off the ends (a) (Fig. 24 D), so they will 
measure 3^" from face (d) and scarf and weld like a 
chain link. Join to chain with an additional link. 

Example 25. Hook (Welded Eye). — Stock, Norway 
Iron \" diameter, 9|" long. 




Z1R 



Explanation. A hook (Fig. 25 A) with a welded eye 
is to be made and joined to the swivel with a chain 
link. 



A COURSE OF EXERCISES 



201 



-g- 









4 


V 



Operation. Draw down one end to T V round and 
4f" long. Draw out the other end to a blunt point 
(Fig. 25 B). Scarf the T V" end (Fig. 
25 C). Bend the stock at (a) (Fig. 
25 B) and form eye as explained on 
page 71. Take a welding heat where 
the end joins the stem, care being taken 
not to burn the eye or stem, and weld. 
Shape the hook to form Fig. 25 A and 
join to the swivel with link. 

Example 26. Collar. — Norway Iron, 
f" X 1" X 10". 

Explanation. The stock is to be 
welded to form a collar of dimensions 
given in Fig. 26 A. 

Operation. Is fully explained on page 97. 

Example 27. Washer. — Stock, Nor- 
way Iron f" x 1" X 10". 

Explanation. The stock is to be 
made into a washer with perfect weld, dimensions given 
in Fig. 27 A. 

Operation. Is fully explained on page 98. 

Example 28. Bolt (Welded Head). — Stock, Norway 
Iron, Y diameter, 5" long; and \" round, any con- 
venient length. 

Explanation. A bolt (Fig. 28 A) is to be made by 
welding a head to the stem. 

Operation. Is fully explained on page 99. 

Example 29. Two Piece Weld. — Stock, Norway Iron 
2 pieces \" diameter, 6" long. 

Explanation. The two pieces are to be scarfed and 
welded so as to form a single straight piece of uniform 
section throughout. 

Operation of welding is fully explained on page 101. 
The piece should be finished in the swage. 



ZQR 



202 



APPENDIX 



Example 30. Angle Weld. — Stock, Norway Iron one 
piece ¥ X 1" X 31*, one piece \" xl"x 4f". 

Explanation. This ex- 
ercise gives practice in 
welding two pieces at 
right angles to each other. 
The weld must be sound 
and must agree with Fig. 
30 A. 

Operation of welding is 

fully explained on page 103. 

Finish all over with flatter. 

Example 31. Tee-Weld. — Stock, Norway Iron, one 

piece |" x 1" X 5" and one f" x 1" X 4". 

Explanation. This exercise while similar to Ex. 30 is 
more difficult to weld. The finished Tee should agree 
with Fig. 31 A, in form and dimensions. 
Operation is explained on page 104. 
Example 32. Blacksmith's Tongs. — Stock, Mild Steel 
two pieces f" x f" X 13". 

Explanation. Each piece is to be finished to dimen- 
sions (Fig. 32 A) and these 





, 






r "" ' 


J-+-1 




> 


\ 


-A 


^ 




■< 


3o n 



X 



% 



N 



/ 



3 



pieces riveted together to 
form a pair of tongs. 

Operation. Upset one 
end (Fig. 32 B) and fuller 
(Fig. 32 C). Draw out 
jaw with sledge (Fig. 32 
D). This will leave the 
piece as shown by Fig. 32 
E. Fuller again as shown 
by 32 F, and the dotted 
lines (Fig. 32 E). Draw out the handle, with sledge 
(or power hammer), (Fig. 32 G) to shape shown by 
Fig 32 H. Punch hole for f" rivet as shown at (b) 



zm 



A COURSE OF EXERCISES 



203 



(Fig. 32 H). Fuller as shown at (a) (Fig. 32 H). 
Finish by drawing the handle to dimensions in Fig. 32 A 
and rivet the two pieces together. 




/ 



It 



313 



ill I* 



71-r l*'««fr« 



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i^3B { 



32 C 



1 



3ZE 



\ SI edge 




Example 33. Center Punch. — Stock, Octagon Tool 
Steel |" x 3|". 



204 



APPENDIX 



Operation. Shape end (6) (Fig. 33 A) to dimensions 
first, then end (a) grind to a point and harden and 
temper, 1 as explained on page 142. 

Caution. In working tool steel great care must be 
observed not to get it too hot or to hammer it too cold 
(See directions in Chapter XII). 



"itS! 



*! 



f»)(D 



33/? 




Example 34. Cold Chisel. — Stock, Octagon Tool Steel 
f" x 6". 

Operation. Shape head end as shown in Fig. 34 A. 
Lay off 2j" from the other end and shape the blade to 
dimensions (Fig. 34 A). In drawing the blade, lay the 
stock so that one of its faces will lie flat on the anvil 
and strike fairly on the upper face. Turn the work 
occasionally while drawing to keep it straight.- Harden 
and temper as described on page 142. 




3+R 



Example 35. Cape Chisel. — Stock, Octagon Tool 
Steel f" x 6'. 

Operation. Shape end (b) to dimensions (Fig. 35 A). 
Lay off 1\" from the other end and shape the blade. 



1 For proper temperature or color to draw temper to, see 
Appendix, Table I. 



A COURSE OF EXERCISES 



205 



In forming the blade fuller to the lines (a-a) Fig. 35 B. 
Care must be taken to have the notches the same depth, 






"0 



-J?V 



and width, and exactly opposite each other, and not as 
shown in Fig. 35 C. The sides are now drawn out by 



206 



APPENDIX 



using a hand-hammer, flatter or sledge. Harden and 
temper like the cold-chisel. 




37*2 

Example 36. Round Nose Tool. — Stock, Tool Steel 
V X 1" X 5". 

Operation. Hold the stock over the anvil as shown 
at 36 B, f" from one end and sledge as indicated 
by the arrow to the shape shown by the dotted 
lines. Hold over the edge of the anvil (Fig. 36 C) 




maAe fo^e of A>o/ ///ce ihte 



/il 



36B 



b 



and hit as indicated by the arrow to the position 
shown by the dotted lines. Taper the sides to the di- 



A COURSE OF EXERCISES 



207 



mensions shown in Fig. 36 A and harden and temper as 
explained on page 143. 

Example 37. Thread Tool. — Stock, Tool Steel tf x 
1" x 6". 

Operation. Same steps as above for Round Nose 
Tool, but shape to the dimensions of Fig. 37 A. Harden 
and temper as for round nose. 

Example 38. Boring Tool. — Stock, Tool Steel ¥ x 
1" X 5". 

Operation Fuller one edge about half through the 
stock (Fig. 38 B). Draw out end as shown by dotted 





lines. Bend cutting end and finish to dimensions (Fig. 
38 A). Harden and temper as tools above. 

Note. For some work larger or smaller necks will be 
needed so it is well to forge tools to different dimensions. 

Example 39. Diamond Point. — Stock, Tool Steel 
¥ X 1" X 6". 

Operation. Fuller about f" deep, Y from one end 
(Fig. 39 B). Sledge to shape shown by Fig. 39 A, 



208 



APPENDIX 



holding as indicated by Fig. 39 C. Harden and temper 
as directed on page 144. 

Example 40. Parting Tool. — Stock, Tool Steel \" x 
1" x 6". 

Operation. Fuller half through on one side §" from 
one end (Fig. 40 B). Draw out to dimensions shown by 
Fig. 40 A as indicated by Fig. 40 C. Harden and temper 
like diamond point. 

I'M 




<fOB 




+OC, 



Example 41. Side Tool. — Stock, \" x 1" X 6". 

Operation. Bevel one edge (Fig. 41 B) and fuller 
(Fig. 41 C). With a flatter draw down the portion 
between the fuller mark and the end, keeping the same 
slant as the fuller mark which will bring it to the shape 
(Fig. 41 D). The edge A-B is made thinner than C-D 
as shown in the section Fig. 41 A. Place on the anvil 
and shape to dimensions Fig. 41 E. After all parts are 
forged to the required dimensions (Fig. 41 A) the edge 



A COURSE OF EXERCISES 



209 




210 



APPENDIX 



A-B (Fig. 41 D) is offset as shown in the plan Fig. 41 A, 
with the set-hammer as shown in Fig. 41 E. Harden 
and temper as described on page 144. 

Example 42. Nippers. — Stock, Tool Steel two pieces 
¥ square, 7" long. 

Operation. Follow the general directions in Example 32 





4Zf\. 

and forge to dimensions shown in Fig. 42 A. Harden 
and temper cutting edges. only. 

Suggestions for Other Exercises. Screw driver, lathe, 
dog, horseshoe, oar-locks for boat, clevis, wood chisel, 
gouges, and garden rakes. 



TABLES 



211 



Table I. — Temperature and Color to which Various Tools 
should be Heated when drawing the Temper 



Tools 


Tempering 


Temperatures 


colors 


Fahr. 


Scrapers, burnisher, hammer 


light straw 


430 


faces, reamers, small tools, paper 






cutters, lathe and planer tools. 






Lathe and planer tools, hand 


medium straw 


450 


tools,milling cutters, reamers, taps, 






boring bar cutters, embossing dies, 






and razors. 






Drills, dies, chuck jaws, dead 


dark straw 


470 


centers, mandrels, drifts, bending 






dies, and leather cutting dies. 






Small drills, rock drills, circular 


brown 


500 


saws (for metal), drop dies, and 






wood chisels. 






Cold chisels (for steel), center 


purple 


530 


punches, scratch alls, ratchet drills, 






wire cutters, shear blades, cams, 






vise jaws, screw drivers, axes, wood 






bits, needles, and press dies. 






Cold chisels (for cast iron). 


dark purple 


550 


Springs and wood saws. 


dark blue 


600 


Light springs and blacksmith's 


light blue 


630 


punches. 







Table II.'- — Color of Iron at Various Temperatures 



Color 



Dark blood red, black red 

Dark red, blood red, low red 

Dark cherry red 

Medium cherry red 

Cherry, full red 

Light cherry, bright cherry, scaling heat, 2 light red 

Salmon, orange, free scaling heat 

Light salmon, light orange 

Yellow 

Light yellow 

White 



Temperature 
Fahr. 



990 
1050 
1175 
1250 
1375 
1550 
1650 
1725 
1825 
1975 
2200 



1 Taken by permission from Taylor and White's paper Trans. Am. 
Soc. of Mech. Engs., Vol. XXL 

2 Heat at which scale forms and adheres, i.e., does not fall away from 
the piece when allowed to cool in air. 



212 



APPENDIX 



Table III. — Power and Time Required for Electric 
Welding by the Thompson Process 



Area of weld 


Watts in pri- 


Time in 






in sq. in. 


mary of 
welders 


seconds 


H.P. 


Foot pounds 




8,550 


33 


14.4 


260,000 


2 


16,700 


45 


28.0 


692,000 


1 


23,500 


55 


39.4 


1,191,000 


11 


29,000 


65 


48.6 


1,738,000 


2 


34,000 


70 


57.0 


2,194,000 


2 1 


39,000 


78 


65.4 


2,804,000 


3 


44,000 


85 


73.7 


3,447,000 


31 


50,000 


90 


83.8 


4,148,000 



Table IV. — Speed of Welding and Gas Consumption 
for Oxy-Acetylene Welding 



Thickness of 


Consumption 


Consumption 


Speed of work 


plates in 


of acetylene 


of oxygen 


in foot run of 


inches 


cu. ft. 


cu. ft. 


weld per hour 


0.0394 


1.8 


2.25 


50 


0.0591 


2.7 


3.50 


40 


0.0787 


3.6 


4.50 


35 


0.0984 


5.4 


7.75 


30 


0.1181 


8.0 


10.00 


24 


0.1575 


12.5 


15.70 


18 


0.2204 


18.0 


22.00 


14 


0.3071 


27.0 


33.00 


10 


0.3582 


36.0 


44.00 


7 



Allowance for the Machining of Forgings. — For 

articles up to 5" in diameter allow \"; f rom 6" to 8" 
allow I"; 9" to 10" allow \"; and 1 ft. allow 1 in. 



TABLES 213 

Bath for Bluing Steel. 

Water 1 gal. 

Hyposulphite of soda 2 ounces 

Acetate of lead 1 

Add the hyposulphite of soda and the acetate of lead to 
the water and heat to boiling. (At first a white precipi- 
tate will appear but this sOon turns black when near the 
boiling point and the solution is ready for use. 

The steel or iron to be used is cleaned of grease and 
dipped into the bath until the proper color appears. 
At first there will be a golden color that rapidly changes 
to a red and finally a blue. This takes but a few 
minutes so the piece must be carefully watched and 
removed the instant the piece is at the proper color, and 
rinsed and dried. If the pieces are first coppered the 
colors will be much more brilliant. Brass articles can 
also be given a very pretty coloring by this bath. 

General Tools Required for a Class of 12 Pupils. 

3 8-lb. sledges 
2 cutters (hot) 
2 cutters (cold) 

2 top and bottom fullers f" 

2 " " " " in 

2 swages f" 

2 " " " " in 



INDEX 



Page 

Acids for hardening 141 

Air-hardening tool steels 155 

Angle weld 104, 202 

Annealing, Definition of 3 

Annealing tool steel 136 

Anvils for forge shops 38 

Arc welding, Electric 10S 

Art iron work 159 

Assyria, Early use of iron in . . 6 
Autogenous welding 112 

Babylon, Early use of Iron 

in 6 

Baroque period, Iron work of 12 

Bath for bluing steel 213 

Baths for hardening tool steel! 140 
Baths for heating tool steel . . . 131 

Beaudry power hammer 172 

Bechi pneumatic hammer. . . . 171 
Bending and twisting metals 

2, 68, 185 

Bending, Edge 72, 191 

Bending, Eye 70 

Bending, Flat 68, 187 

Bending, Hook 71, 185 

Bending plates 74 

Bending, Ring 70, 185 

Bending, U 69, 185 

Bernardo's method of electric 

welding 108 

Bessemer process of making 

steel : 27 

Bessemer steel plant 

(frontispiece) 
Bible references to early smiths 4 
Blast furnace, Operation of the 19 

Blowers for forge shop 37 

Blowpipe for brazing 124 

Bluing steel, Bath for 213 



Page 
Bolt-head, Making a. .99, 193, 201 

Boring tool exercise 207 

Bradley power hammer 173 

Brass, Egyptian weapons of . . 6 
Brass, Tubal-Cain instructor 

in 4 

Brazing cast iron 125 

Brazing, Definition of . , 3 

Brazing furnaces 123 

Brazing, Methods of 121 

Brine bath for hardening 140 

Bronze, Egyptian weapons of 6 
Building-up, Oxyacetylene . . . 113 
Butt welding 102, 109 

Calcining iron ores 19 

Calculations of stock for 

forging. 178 

Calipers, Forging 49 

Cape chisel forging exercise . . 204 
Carbon in steel, Cementite 

and pearlite 133 

Case hardening steel 151 

Cast iron, Analysis of 17 

Cementite carbon in steel. ... 133 

Chain, Electric welding of . . . Ill 
Chain link, Making a. .95, 179, 197 

Charcoal for forge fires 51 

Charcoal for pack hardening . 152 

Chasing and engraving metal . 161 

China, Early use of iron in . . . 6 

Chisels, Forging 45, 204 

Chisels, Hardening and tem- 
pering cold 142 

Chisel temper, Steel of 128 

Cold-short iron 18 

Collar, Making an iron 97, 201 

Color of iron at various 

temperatures 211 



215 



216 



INDEX 



Page 
Counterbores, Hardening steel 149 
Cover annealing of tool steel. 136 
Cutting of metals, Oxyacety- 

lene 114 

Cyanide bath for heating tool 

steel 132 

Decalescence of steel 133 

Diamond point tool exercise . . 207 

Dies, Hardening thread 148 

Doorpull, Forging a 188 

Drawing down and upsetting 

1, 56, 58, 180, 183, 184 
Drills, Hardening and temper- 
ing 145 

Edge bending 72, 191 

Egyptian painting of early 

forge 5 

Electric welding 108, 212 

Embossing metal 160 

Engraving and chasing metal. 161 

Etching metal 161 

Equipment for forge shops. . . 34 
Exercises in forging, Course of 183 
Eye bending 70 

Fagot weld, Making a 105 

Ferrocyanide methods of hard- 
ening 152 

Ferrocyanide of potassium 

bath 132 

Fires, Types of forge 51 

Flat bend, Making a 69 

Flatters, Use of 87 

Flux for brazing 121 

Fluxes for Iron Ore 18 

Fluxes, Welding 93 

Folding joints for art metal 

work 164 

Forge Shop equipment 34 

Forges for blacksmithing 34 

Forging, Operations involved 

in 1 



Page 
Forgings, Allowances for ma- 
chining 212 

Fretting art iron work 163 

Fuel for forges 50 

Fuels for reducing iron ores . . 18 

Fullering 84, 188 

Fullers, Top and bottom 47 

Furnaces for heating tool steel 130 

Gas torch for heating tool steel 130 
Gasoline torch for brazing. ... 124 

Gauges, Hardening ring 149 

German iron work 11 

Goldschmidt Thermit proc- 
esses 114 

Gothic period, Iron work of 

the 9 

Graphic representation of steel 137 
Greeks, Early use of iron by 
the 6 

Hammer, Beaudry power. . . . 172 
Hammer, Bechi pneumatic. . . 171 

Hammer, Bradley helve 172 

Hammers, Forging 43 

Hammers, Hardening hand . . . 148 

Hammer refining steel 92 

Hammers, Set 87 

Hammers, Steam power 168 

Hammock hook, Forging a . . . 189 
Hardening baths for tool steel 140 

Hardening, Case 151 

Hardening, Definition of 2 

Hardening, Ferrocyanide 

method of 152 

Hardening high speed steel. . . 157 

Hardening, Pack 151 

Hardening steel, Graphic 

representation of 137 

Hardening steel tools, 

Methods of 142 

Hardies, Use of 48 

Heading tools, Use of 88 

Heating tool steel 13, 133 

Helve power hammer, Bradley. 172 



INDEX 



217 



Page 

Hematite Ore, Brown 19 

Hematite Ore, Red 18 

Herodotus, Reference to use 

of iron by 6 

High speed steel, Annealing. . 156 

High speed steel, Grinding. . . 156 
High speed steel, Hardening 

and tempering 157 

High speed steel, Working. . . 156 

Historic use of iron and steel 4 

Hook bending 71 

Hook exercise in forging. .189, 191 

Hot-short iron 18 

Hydraulic press for forging. . . 177 

Ice tongs exercise 195 

Interfacings for art iron work . 166 

Iron, Analysis of Cast 17 

Iron at various temperatures, 

Color of 211 

Iron, Bible references to use of 4 

Iron, Historic use of 4 

Iron, Impurities of wrought. . 17 

Iron, Pig 16 

. Iron, Tubal-Cain instructor in 4 

Iron used by early Egyptians . 5 
Iron used by Greeks and 

Romans 6 

Iron work, Art 159 

Iron work, German 11 

Iron work of the Baroque 

period 12 

Iron work of the Gothic 

period 9 

Iron work of the Renaissance 

period 10 

Iron work of the Rococo period 13 
Iron work of the Romanesque 

period 9 

Joining art metal, Methods of 162 
Jumping up or upsetting. ... 1, 64 

Jump weld, Making a 103 

Korbad, An iron store found 

at 6 



Page 

L welding, Electric Ill 

Lap weld, Making a 95 

Lathe tools, Hardening and 

tempering 144 

Lead bath for heating tool 

steel 131 

Leaves and ornaments for art 

work 166 

Link, Making a chain. 95, 179, 197 

Magnetite Ore 18 

Milling Cutters, Hardening 
and tempering 146 

Nail exercise 193 

Nebuchadnezzar carried away 

smiths 4 

Nippers exercise 210 

Nut exercise, Hexagonal 194 

Nut exercise, Square 194 

Oil fuel furnace for welding .. . 118 

Oil hardening bath 140 

Oil, Tempering in 150 

Open hearth process of making 

steel 24 

Ores, Common varieties of iron 18 

Ores, Fuels and fluxes for iron . 18 
Ores, Reduction and refining 

iron 19 

Ornamental iron work 8, 159 

Oxyacetylene building-up ... . 113 

Oxyacetylene cutting of metals 1 14 

Oxyacetylene welding. ... 112, 212 

Pack annealing 136 

Pack hardening 151, 152 

Parting tool exercise 208 

Pearlite carbon in steel 133 

Pig iron 16 

Pitch method of brazing cast 

iron 125 

Point welding Ill 

Potassium ferrocyanide hard- 
ening 152 



218 



INDEX 



Page 

Press for forging, Hydraulic . . 177 

Puddling, Dry and wet 22 

Puddling furnace for iron .... 22 

Punch exercise, Center 203 

Punch, Power 78 

Punches, Blacksmith 46 

Punches, Hand 78 

Punching metal 2, 78, 187 

Razor temper of tool steel .... 128 
Reamers, Hardening and 

tempering 145 

Recalescence of steel 133 

Red-short iron 18 

Refining of steel, Hammer ... 92 
Renaissance period, Iron work 

of 10 

Resistance welding, Electric . . 109 

Ridge welding, Electric Ill 

Ring, bending and forging 

70, 98, 178, 190, 197 

Riveting art iron work 162 

Riveting metal 80 

Roasting iron ores 19 

Rococo period, Iron work of 

the 13 

Rolling mill for iron and steel . 30 
Romans, Early use of iron by . 6 
Romanesque period, Iron 

work of . .' 8 

Round nose tool exercise 206 

Saw file temper of steel 128 

Scarfing welds 104 

Scrolls for art iron work 165 

Self-hardening tool steels 155 

Sets, Blacksmiths 46, 87 

Shaping, Definition of 2 

Shears, Power 40 

Side tool exercise 208 

Siemans-Martin process 26 

Siemans regenerative furnace. 24 
Slavianoff method of electric 

welding 108 

Sledges, Forging 43 



Page 

Soldering, Hard 121 

Soldering invented by Glaucos 7 

Solutions, Hardening 140 

Spelter for brazing 121 

Spindle temper of steel 128 

Spinning or impressing metal. 161 

Springs, Hardening 151 

Splitting, punching and rivet- 
ing 77 

Split welds 100, 190 

Spot welding, Electric 110 

Steam hammers 168 

Steel, Bessemer process for 

making 27 

Steel, Carbon tool 127 

Steel, High speed tool 155 

Steel invented by Chinese ... 6 

Steel, Kinds of 17 

Steel, Methods of heating tool 129 

Steel, Open hearth 24 

Steel plant, View of Bessemer 1 

Steel, Self-hardening tool 155 

Steel, Tempering tool 134 

Steel, Tool or crucible 29 

Straightening bent tools 152 

Striking, Method of 57 

Swages, Use of 40, 85 

Swages, Top, bottom and 

special 47 

Swivel exercise 198 

Taps, Hardening and temper- 
ing , . 145 

Tee weld .' 104, 111, 202 

Temper of tool steel, Drawing 

the 134 

Tempering colors and temper- 
atures 141, 211 

Tempering, Definition of 2 

Tempering in oil 150 

Tempers of steel 128 

Tenoning for art metal work . . 164 
Thermit strengthening of cast- 
ings 118 

Thermit welding by fusion. . . 115 



INDEX 



219 



Page 
Thermit welding by plasticity 116 
Thermit welding of castings. . 117 
Thermit welding processes. . . 114 
Thompson process of electric 

welding 212 

Threading tool exercise 207 

Tongs, Blacksmith 44, 202" 

Tongs exercise, Ice 195 

Tool steel, Manufacture of . . 29, 127 

Tools for forging, Hand 43 

Tools required for a class of 

twelve 213 

Tubal-Cain, Instructor in 

metals 4 

Twisting and bending 68, 75 

Twisting for art metal work. . 164 

U-bend 68 

Upsetting or jumping up 

1, 64, 183 

Washer exercise in forging ... 201 
Water annealing of tool steel. 136 
Water with oil layer for hard- 
ening 141 

Weight of forgings, Calculat- 
ing 182 

Weld, Angle 104, 202 

Weld, Butt 102, 109 

Weld exercise, Two-piece 201 

Weld, Fagot 105 



Page 

Weld, Jump. 1 . 103 

Weld, Lap 95, 110 

Weld, Split 100 

Weld, Tee 104, 202 

Welding, Autogenous 112 

Welding, Definition of 2 

Welding, Electric point Ill 

Welding, Electric chain Ill 

Welding, Electric resistance 

109, 212 

Welding, Electric ridge Ill 

Welding, Electric spot 110 

Welding, Electric X Ill 

Welding exercise, Iron 196 

Welding fluxes 93 

Welding, Hand 91 

Welding invented by Glaucos 7 

Welding, Oxyacetylene... 112, 212 
Welding, Power and time for 

electric 212 

Welding steel by hand 105 

Welding steel to iron 105 

Welding, Thermit process of . . 114 

Welding with liquid uel 119 

Wheel, Measuring. 49 

Wrought iron, Impurities of . . 17 

X welding, Electric Ill 

Zerener method of electric 

welding 108 



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Superheaters and Superheating and their Control. . .8vo, 

Bottcher, A. Cranes: Their Construction, Mechanical Equip- 
ment and Working. Trans, by A. Tolhausen. .. .4to, 
Bottler, M. Modern Bleaching Agents. Trans, by C. Salter. 

i2mo, 

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Boulton, S. B. Preservation of Timber. (Science Series No. 

82.) i6mo, 

Bourcart, E. Insecticides, Fungicides and Weedkillers. . .8vo, 
Bourgougnon, A. Physical Problems. (Science Series No. 113.) 

i6mo, • o 50 
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A. B. Searle 8vo, *5 00 

Bowie, A. J., Jr. A Practical Treatise on Hydraulic Mining. 8vo, 5 00 
Bowles, 0. Tables of Common Rocks. (Science Series.) .i6mo, o 50 



5 


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D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY"'? SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 7 

Bowser, E. A. Elementary Treatise on Analytic Geometry.i2mo, i 75 
Elementary Treatise on the Differential and Integral 

Calculus i2mo, 2 25 

Bowser, E. A. Elementary Treatise on Analytic Mechanics, 

i2mo, 3 00 

Elementary Treatise on Hydro-mechanics 121110, 2 50 

A Treatise on Roofs and Bridges *2 25 

Boycott, G. W. M. Compressed Air Work and Diving. .8vo, *4 00 

Bragg, E. M. Marine Engine Design i2mo, *2 00 

Design of Marine Engines and Auxiliaries (1 11 Press.) 

Brainard, F. R. The Sextant. (Science Series No. ioi.).i6mo, 

Brassey's Naval Annual for 191 1 8vo, *6 00 

Brew, W. Three-Phase Transmission 8vo, *2 00 

Briggs, R., and Wolff, A. R. Steam-Heating. (Science Series 

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Bright, C. The Life Story of Sir Charles Tilson Bright. .8vo, *4 50 
Brislee, T. J. Introduction to the Study of Fuel. (Outlines 

of Industrial Chemistry.) 8vo, *3 00 

Broadfoot, S. K. Motors Secondary Batteries. (Installation 

Manuals Series. ) i2mo, *o 75 

Broughton, H. H. Electric Cranes and Hoists *g 00 

Brown, G. Healthy Foundations. ( Science Series No. 80.) .i6mo, o 50 

Brown, H. Irrigation 8vo, *5 00 

Brown, Wm. N. The Art of Enamelling on Metal i2mo, *i 00 

Handbook on Japanning and Enamelling i2mo, *i 50 

House Decorating and Painting i2mo, *i 50 

History of Decorative Art 121110, *i 25 

Dipping, Burnishing, Lacquering and Bronzing Brass 

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Browne, R. E. Water Meters. (Science Series No. 8i.).i6mo, o 50 

Bruce, E. M. Pure Food Tests 121110, *i 25 

Bruhns, Dr. New Manual of Logarithms 8vo, cloth, 2 00 

Half morocco, 2 50 
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8 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 

Buel, R. H. Safety Valves. (Science Series No. 21.). ..i6mo, o 50 
Burley, G. W. Lathes, Their Construction and Operation, 

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Burstall, F. W. Energy Diagram for Gas. With text...8vo, *i 50 

Diagram sold separately *i 00 

Burt, W. A. Key to the Solar Compass i6mo, leather, 2 50 

Buskett, E. W. Fire Assaying _ i2mo, *i 25 

Butler, H. J. Motor Bodies and Chasis 8vo, *2 50 

Byers, H. G., and Knight, H. G. Notes on Qualitative 

Analysis 8vo, *i 50 

Cain, W. Brief Course in the Calculus i2mo, *i 75 

Elastic Arches. (Science Series No. 48.) i6mo, o 50 

Maximum Stresses. (Science Series No. 38.) i6mo, o 50 

Practical Dsigning Retaining of Walls. (Science Series 

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■ -Theory of Voussoir Arches. (Science Series No. 12.) 

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Carpenter, R. C, and Diederichs, H. Internal-Combustion 

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Carter, E. T. Motive Power and Gearing for Electrical Ma- 
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Carter, H. A. Ramie (Rhea), China Grass i2mo, *2 00 

Carter, H. R. Modern Flax, Hemp, and Jute Spinning. . 8vo, *3 00 

Bleaching, Dyeing and Finishing of Fabrics 3vo, *i 00 

Cary, E. R. Solution of Railroad Problems With the Use of 

the Slide Rule i6mo, *i 00 

Cathcart, W. L. Machine Design. Part I. Fastenings ... 8vo, *3 00 
Cathcart, W. L., and Chaffee, J. I. Elements of Graphic 

Statics and General Graphic Methods 8vo, *3 00 

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D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 9 

Caven, R. M., and Lander, G. D. Systematic Inorganic Chem- 
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Chalkley, A. P. Diesel Engines 8vo, *3 oo 

Chambers' Mathematical Tables 8vo, i 75 

Chambers, G. F. Astronomy i2mo, *i 50 

Charpentier, P. Timber 8vo, *6 00 

Chatley, H. Principles and Designs of Aeroplanes. (Science 

Series.) i6mo, o 50 

How to Use Water Power i2mo, *i 00 

Child, C. D. Electric Arcs 8vo, *2 00 

Child, C. T. The How and Why of Electricity i2mo, 1 00 

Christian, M. Disinfection and Disinfectants i2mo, *2 00 

Christie, W. W. Boiler-waters, Scale, Corrosion, Foaming, 

8vo, *3 00 

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Furnace Draft. (Science Series.) i6mo, o 50 

Water, Its Purification and Use in the Industries. .8vo, 

Church's Laboratory Guide. Rewritten by Edward Kinch.8vo, *2 50 

Clapperton, G. Practical Papermaking 8vo, 250 

Clark, A. G. Motor Car Engineering. 

Vol. I. Construction 8vo, *3 00 

Vol. II. Design (In Press.) 

Clark, C. H. Marine Gas Engines i2mo, *i 50 

Clark, J. M. New System of Laying Out Railway Turnouts, 

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Clerk, D., and Idell, F. E. Theory of the Gas Engine. 

(Science Series No. 62.) i6mo, o 50 

Clevenger, S. R. Treatise on the Method of Government 

Surveying i6mo, mor., 2 50 

Clouth, F. Rubber, Gutta-Percha, and Balata 8vo, *5 00 

Cochran, J. Treatise on Cement Specifications 8vo, *i 00 

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10 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 

Coffin, J. H. C. Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. . i2mo, ^3 50 
Colburn, Z., and Thurston, R. H. Steam Boiler Explosions. 

(Science Series No. 2.) i6mo, o 50 

Cole, R. S. Treatise on Photographic Optics i2mo, 1 50 

Coles-Finch, W. Water, Its Origin and Use 8vo, *5 00 

Collins, J. E. Useful Alloys and Memoranda for Goldsmiths, 

Jewelers , i6mo, o 50 

Collis, A. G. High and Low Tension Switch-Gear Design. 8vo, *3 50 

■ Switchgear. (Installation Manuals Series.) nmo, 050 

Coombs, H. A. Gear Teeth. (Science Series No. 120). .. i6mo, o 50 

Cooper, W. R. Primary Batteries 8vo, *4 00 

Copperthwaite, W. C. Tunnel Shields 4to, "g 00 

Corey, H. T. Water Supply Engineering .8vo (In Pi*ess.) 

Corfield, W. H. Dwelling Houses. (Science Series No. 50.) i6mo, o 50 

- — ■ — Water and Water-Supply. (Science Series No. 17.). . i6mo, - 50 

Cornwall, H. B. Manual of Blow-pipe Analysis .8vo, *2 50 

Cowell, W. B. Pure Air, Ozone, and Water i2mo, *2 00 

Craig, J. W., and Woodward, W. P. Questions and Answers 

about Electrical Apparatus i2mo, leather, 1 50 

Craig, T. Motion of a Solid in a Fuel. (Science Series No. 49.) 

i6mo, o 50 

Wave and Vortex Motion. (Science Series No. 43.) . i6mo, o 50 

Cramp, W. Continuous Current Machine Design 8vo, *2 50 

Creedy, F. Single-Phase Commutator Motors 8vo, *2 00 

Crocker, F. B. Electric Lighting. Two Volumes. 8vo. 

Vol. I. The Generating Plant 3 00 

Vol. II. Distributing Systems and Lamps 

Crocker, F B., and Arendt, M. Electric Motors 8vo, *2 50 

and Wheeler, S. S. The Management of Electrical Ma- 
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Cross, C. F., Bevan, E. J., and Sindall, R. W. Wood Pulp and 

Its Applications. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 00 

Crosskey, L. R. Elementary Prospective 8vo, 1 00 

Crosskey, L. R., and Thaw, J. Advanced Perspective 8vo, 1 50 

Culley, J. L. Theory of Arches. (Science Series No. 87.) . i6mo, o 50 

Dadourian, H. M. Analytical Mechanics 8vo. *3 00 

Danby, A. Natural Rock Asphalts and Bitumens 8vo, *2 50 



D. VAX NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 11 

Davenport, C. The Book. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo 

Davey, N. The Gas Turbine 8vo, *4 oo 

Da vies, F. H. Electric Power and Traction 8vo, *2 oo 

Foundations and Machinery Fixing. (Installation Manuals 

Series.) i6mo, i oo 

Dawson, P. Electric Traction on Railways 8vo, *g oo 

Deerr, N. Cane Sugar 8vo, 7 00 

Deite, C. Manual of Soapmaking. Trans, by S. T. King. -4to, *5 00 
De la Coux, H. The Industrial Uses of Water. Trans, by A. 

Morris 8vo, *4 50 

Del Mar, W. A. Electric Power Conductors 8vo, *2 00 

Denny, G. A. Deep-Level Mines of the Rand 4to, *io 00 

Diamond Drilling for Gold *5 00 

De Roos, J. D. C. Linkages. (Science Series No. 47.). . .i6mo, o 50 

Derr, W. L. Block Signal Operation Oblong nmo, *i 50 

Maintenance of Way Engineering (In Preparation.) 

Desaint, A. Three Hundred Shades and How to Mix Them. 

8vo, 8 00 

De Varona, A. Sewer Gases. (Science Series No. 55.)... i6mo, 50 
Devey, R. G. Mill and Factory Wiring. (Installation Manuals 

Series.) i2mo, *i 00 

Dibdin, W. J. Purification of Sewage and Water 8vo, 6 50 

Dichman, C. Basic Open-Hearth Steel Process 8vo, *3 50 

Dieterich, K. Analysis of Resins, Balsams, and Gum Resins 

8vo, *3 00 
Dinger, Lieut. H. C. Care and Operation of Naval Machinery 

i2mo. *2 00 
Dixon, D. B. Machinist's and Steam Engineer's Practical Cal- 
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Doble, W. A. Power Plant Construction on the Pacific Coast. (In Press-) 

Dommett, W. E. Motor Car Mechanism 121110, *i 25 

Dorr, B. F. The Surveyor's Guide and Pocket Table-book. 

i6mo, mor., 2 00 
Draper, C. H. Elementary Text-book of Light, Heat and 

Sound 1 2mo, 1 00 

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Dron, R. W. Mining Formulas i2mo, i oo 

Dubbel, H. High Power Gas Engines 8vo, *5 oo 

Duckwall, E. W. Canning and Preserving of Food Products. 8 vo, *s oo 
Dumesny, P., and Noyer, J. Wood Products, Distillates, and 

Extracts. . 8vo, *4 50 

Duncan, W. G., and Penman, D. The Electrical Equipment of 

Collieries 8vo, *4 00 

Dunstan, A. E., and Thole, F. T. B. Textbook of Practical 

Chemistry i2mo, *i 40 

Duthie, A. L. Decorative Glass Processes. (Westminster 

Series) 8vo, *2 00 

Dwight, H. B. Transmission Line Formulas 8vo, *2 00 

Dyson, S. S. Practical Testing of Raw Materials 8vo, *5 00 

and Clarkson, S. S. Chemical Works 8vo, *^ 50 

Eccles, W. H. Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony. ... (In Press.) 
Eck, J. Light, Radiation and Illumination. Trans, by Paul 

Hogner 8vo, *2 50 

Eddy, H. T. Maximum Stresses under Concentrated Loads, 

8vo, 1 50 

Edelman, P. Inventions and Patents i2mo, {In Press.) 

Edgcumbe, K. Industrial Electrical Measuring Instruments . 

8vo. 
Edler, R. Switches and Switchgear. Trans, by Ph. Laubach. 

8vo, *4 00 

Eissler, M. The Metallurgy of Gold 8vo, 7 50 

The Metallurgy of Silver 8vo, 4 00 

The Metallurgy of Argentiferous Lead 8vo, 5 00 

A Handbook of Modern Explosives 8vo, 5 00 

Ekin, T. C. Water Pipe and Sewage Discharge Diagrams 

folio, *3 00 

Electric Light Carbons, Manufacture of 8vo, 1 00 

Eliot, C. W., and Storer, F. H. Compendious Manual of Qualita- 
tive Chemical Analysis i2mo, *i 25 

Ellis, C. Hydrogenation of Oils 8vo, *4 00 

Ellis, G. Modern Technical Drawing 8vo, *2 00 

Ennis, Wm. D. Linseed Oil and Other Seed Oils 8vo, *4 00 

Applied Thermodynamics 8vo, *4 50 

Flying Machines To-day i2mo, *i 50 



D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 13 

Vapors for Heat Engines nmo, *i oo 

Erfurt, J. Dyeing of Paper Pulp. Trans, by J. Hubner. .8vo. 

Ermen, W. F. A. Materials Used in Sizing nmo, *2 oo 

Evans, C. A. Macadamized Roads (In Press.) 

Ewing, A. J. Magnetic Induction in Iron 8vo, *4 oo 

Fairie, J. Notes on Lead Ores i2mo, *i oo 

Notes on Pottery Clays nmo, *i 50 

Fairley, W., and Andre, Geo. J. Ventilation of Coal Mines. 

(Science Series No. 58.) i6mo, o 50 

Fairweather, W. C. Foreign and Colonial Patent Laws . . .8vo, *3 00 

Fanning, T. T. Hydraulic and Water-supply Engineering. 8vo, *5 00 

Fay, I. W. The Coal-tar Colors 8vo, *4 00 

Fernbach, R. L. Glue and Gelatine 8vo, *3 00 

Chemical Aspects of Silk Manufacture nmo, *i 00 

Fischer, E. The Preparation of Organic Compounds. Trans. 

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Fish, J. C. L. Lettering of Working Drawings Oblong 80, 1 00 

Fisher, H. K. C, and Darby, W. C. Submarine Cable Testing. 

8vo, *3 50 
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Aikman 8vo, 4 00 

Fleming, J. A. The Alternate-current Transformer. Two 

Volumes 8vo, 

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Vol. II. The Utilization of Induced Currents *5 00 

Propagation of Electric Currents 8vo, *3 00 

A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing 

Room. Two Volumes 8vo, each, *5 00 

Fleury, P. White Zinc Paints nmo, *2 50 

Flynn, P. J. Flow of Water. (Science Series No. 84.).i6mo, o 50 

Hydraulic Tables. (Science Series No. 66.) i6mo, 050 

Forgie, J. Shield Tunneling 8vo. (In Press.) 

Foster, H. A. Electrical Engineers' Pocket-book. (Seventh 

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Engineering Valuation of Public Utilities 8vo, *3 00 

Handbook of Electrical Cost Data 8vo. (In Press) 

Fowle, F. F. Overhead Transmission Line Crossings .. . .nmo, *i 50 
The Solution of Alternating Current Problems 8vo (In Press.) 



14 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 

Feu, W. G. Transition Curves. (Science Series No. no. ).i6mo, o 50 
Fox, W., and Thomas, C. W. Practical Course in Mechanical 

Drawing nmo, 1 25 

Foye, J. C. Chemical Problems. (Science Series No. 63.). i6mo, 50 

Handbook of Mineralogy. (Science Series No. 86.) . 

i6mo, o So 

Francis, J. B. Lowell Hydraulic Experiments. , 4to, 15 00 

Franzen, H. Exercises in Gas Analysis i2mo, *i 00 

French, J. W. Machine Tools. 2 vols 4to, *i5 00 

Freudemacher, P. W. Electrical Mining Installations. (In- 
stallation Manuals Series.) i2mo, *i 00 

Frith, J. Alternating Current Design 8vo, *2 00 

Fritsch, J. Manufacture of Chemical Manures. Trans, by 

D. Grant 8vo, *4 00 

Frye, A. I. Civil Engineers' Pocket-book i2mo, leather, *5 00 

Fuller, G. W. Investigations into the Purification of the Ohio 

River 4to, *io' 00 

Furnell, J. Paints, Colors, Oils, and Varnishes 8vo, *i 00 

Gairdner. J. W. I. Earthwork 8vo (hi Press.) 

Gant, L. W. Elements of Electric Traction 8vo, *2 50 

Garcia, A. J. R. V. Spanish-English Railway Terms. . . .8vo, *4 50 
Garforth, W. E. Rules for Recovering Coal Mines after Explo- 
sions and Fires nmo, leather, 1 50 

Garrard, C. C. Electric Switch and) Controlling Gear. .. . (In Press.) 

Gaudard, J. Foundations. (Science Series No. 34.) i6mo, o 50 

Gear, H, B., and Williams, P. F. Electric Central Station Dis- 
tributing Systems nmo, *3 00 

Geerligs, H. C. P. Cane Sugar and Its Manufacture 8vo, *5 00 

Geikie, J. Structural and Field Geology 8vo, *4 00 

Mountains, Their Origin, Growth and Decay 8vo, *4 00 

■ The Antiquity of Man in Europe 8vo, *3 00 

Georgi, F., and Schubert, A. Sheet Metal Working. Trans. 

by C. Salter 8vo, 3 00 

Gerber, N. Analysis of Milk, Condensed Milk, and Infants' 

Milk-Food 8vo, 1 25 

Gerhard, W. P. Sanitation, Water-supply and -Sewage Disposal 

of Country Houses i2ino, *2 00 



D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLtl CATALOG 15 

Gas Lighting. (Science Series No. in.) i6mo, o So 

Gerhard, W. P. Household Wastes. (Science Series No. 97.) 

i6mo, 

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Sanitary Drainage of Buildings. (Science Series No. 93.) 

i6mo, 

Gerhardi, C. W. H. Electricity Meters 8vo, 

Geschwind, L. Manufacture of Alum and Sulphates. Trans. 

by C. Salter 8vo, 

Gibbs, W. E. Lighting by Acetylene nmo, 

Gibson, A. H. Hydraulics and Its Application 8vo, 

"Water Hammer in Hydraulic Pipe Lines. nmo, 

Gibson, A. H., and Ritchie, E. V. Circular Arc Bow Girder. 4to, 

Gilbreth, F. B. Motion Study. A Method for Increasing the 

Efficiency of the Workman nmo, 

Primer of Scientific Management i2mo, 

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8vo, 

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Golding, H. A The Theta-Phi Diagram i2mo, 

Goldschmidt, R. Alternating Current Commutator Motor . 8vo, 
Goodchild, W. Precious Stones. (Westminster Series.) .8vo, 

Goodeve, T. M. Textbook on the Steam-engine nmo, 

Gore, G. Electrolytic Separation of Metals 8vo, 

Gould, E. S. Arithmetic of the Steam-engine nmo, 

Calculus. (Science Series No. 112.) i6mo, 

High Masonry Dams. (Science Series No. 22.) . . . i6mo, 

Practical Hydrostatics and Hydrostatic Formulas. (Science 

Series.) i6mo, 

Gratacap, L. P. A Popular Guide to Minerals 8vo, 

Gray, J. Electrical Influence Machines nmo, 

Gray, J. Marine Boiler Design nmo, 

GreenhiU, G. Dynamics cf Mechanical Flight. . . . . , . . . . .8vo, 
Greenwood, E. Classified Guide to Technical and Commercial 

Books 8vo, 

Gregorius, R. Mineral Waxes. Trans, by C. Salter . . . nmo, 
Griffiths, A. B. A Treatise on Manures nmo, 






50 





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16 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 

Griffiths, A. B. Dental Metallurgy 8vo, 

Gross, E. Hops 8vo, 

Grossman, J. Ammonia and its Compounds nmo, 

Groth, L. A. Welding and Cutting Metals by Gases or Electric- 
ity. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, 

Grover, F. Modern Gas and Oil Engines 8vo, 

Gruner, A. Power-loom Weaving 8vo, 

Giildner, Hugo. Internal-Combustion Engines. Trans, by 

H. Diedrichs 4to, *io oo 

Gunther, C. 0. Integration nmo. 

Gurden, R. L. Traverse Tables folio, half mor., 

Guy, A. E. Experiments on the Flexure of Beams 8vo, 

Haenig, A. Emery and the Emery Industry nmo, 

Hainbach, R. Pottery Decoration. Trans, by C. Slater. . nmo, 

Hale, W. J. Calculations of General Chemistry nmo, 

Hall, C. H. Chemistry of Paints and Paint Vehicles nmo, 

Hall, G. L. Elementary Theory of Alternate Current Work- 
ing '. 8vo, 

Hall, R. H. Governors and Governing Mechanism nmo, 

Hall, W. S. Elements of the Differential and Integral Calculus 

8vo, 

Descriptive Geometry 8vo volume and 4to atlas, 

Haller, G. F., and Cunningham, E. T. The Tesla Coil nmo, 

Halsey, F. A. Slide Valve Gears nmo, 

The Use of the Slide Rule. (Science Series.) i6mo, 

■ Worm and Spiral Gearing. (Science Series.) i6mo, 

Hancock, H. Textbook of Mechanics and Hydrostatics 8vo, 

Hancock, W. C. Refractory Materials. (Metallurgy Series. (In Press.) 

Hardy, E. Elementary Principles of Graphic Statics . nmo, 

Harrison, W. B. The Mechanics' Tool-book nmo, 

Hart, J. W. External Plumbing Work 8vo, 

Hints to Plumbers on Joint Wiping 8vo, 

Principles of Hot Water Supply • 8vo, 

■ Sanitary Plumbing and Drainage 8vo, 

Haskins, C. H. The Galvanometer and Its Uses i6mo, 

Hatt, J. A. H. The Colorist . Second Edition. . . .square nmo, 



*7 


50 


*i 


25 


*2 


50 


*3 


00 


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D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 17 

Hausbrand, E. Drying by Means of Air and Steam. Trans. 

by A. C. Wright nmo, *2 oo 

Evaporating, Condensing and Cooling Apparatus. Trans. 

by A. C. Wright 8vo, *5 oo 

Hausmann, E. Telegraph Engineering 8vo, *3 oo 

Hausner, A. Manufacture of Preserved Foods and Sweetmeats. 

Trans, by A. Morris and H. Robson 8vo, *3 oo 

Hawkesworth, J. Graphical Handbook for Reinforced Concrete 

Design 4to, *2 50 

Hay, A. Continuous Current Engineering 8vo, *2 50 

Hayes, H. V. Public Utilities, Their Cost New and Deprecia- 
tion 8vo, *2 00 

Public Utilities, Their Fair Present Value and Return, 

8vo, 

Heather, H. J. S. Electrical Engineering 8vo, 

Heaviside, O. Electromagnetic Theory. Three volumes. 

8vo, Vols. I and II, each, 
Vol. Ill, 

Heck, R. C. H. Steam Engine and Turbine 8vo, 

Steam-Engine and Other Steam Motors. Two Volumes. 

Vol. I. Thermodynamics and the Mechanics 8vo, 

Vol. II. Form, Construction and Working 8vo, 

■ Notes on Elementary Kinematics 8vo, boards, 

Graphics of Machine Forces 8vo, boards, 

Heermann, P. Dyers' Materials. Trans, by A. C. Wright. 

i2mo, *2 50 
Hellot, Macquer and D'Apligny. Art of Dyeing Wool, Silk and 

Cotton 8vo, *2 00 

Henrici, 0. Skeleton Structures 8vo, 1 50 

Hering, D. W. Essentials of Physics for College Students. 

8vo, *i 75 
Hermann, G. The Graphical Statics of Mechanism. Trans. 

by A. P. Smith i2mo, 2 00 

Herring-Shaw, A. Domestic Sanitation and Plumbing. Two 

Parts 8vo, *s 00 

Elementary Science of Sanitation and Plumbing .... 8vo, *2 00 

Herzfeld, J. Testing of Yarns and Textile Fabrics 8vo, *3 50 



+2 


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18 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 

Hildebrandt, A. Airships, Past and Present 8vo, *3 50 

Hildenbrand, B. W. Cable-Making. (Science Series No. 32.) 

i6mo, o 05 

Hildich, H. Concise History of Chemistry i2mo, *i 

Hill, J. W. The Purification of Public Water Supplies. New 52 

Edition (In Press.) 

Interpretation of Water Analysis (In Press.) 

Hill, M. J. M. The Theory of Proportion 8vo, *2 50 

Hiroi, I. Plate Girder Construction. (Science Series No. 95.) 

i6mo, o 50 

Statically-Indeterminate Stresses i2mo, *2 00 

Hirshfeld, C. F. Engineering Thermodynamics. (Science 

Series.) i6mo, o 50 

Hobart, H. M. Heavy Electrical Engineering 8vo, *4 50 

Design of Static Transformers 8vo, *2 00 

Electricity 8vo, *2 00 

Electric Trains 8vo, *2 50 

Electric Propulsion of Ships 8vo, *2 00 

Hobartj J. F. Hard Soldering, Soft Soldering, and Brazing . 

i2mo, *i 00 
Hobbs, W. R. P. The Arithmetic of Electrical Measurements 

i2mo, o 50 

Hoff, J. N. Paint and Varnish Facts and Formulas nmo, *i 50 

Hole, W. The Distribution of Gas 8vo, *7 50 

Holley, A. L. Railway Practice folio, 6 00 

Hopkins, N. M. Experimental Electrochemistry 8vo, 

Model Engines and Small Boats i2mo, 1 25 

Hopkinson, J., Shoolbred, J. N., and Day, R. E. Dynamic 

Electricity. (Science Series No. 71.) i6mo, o 50 

Horner, J. Practical Ironfounding 8vo, *2 00 

Gear Cutting, in Theory and Practice 8vo, *3 00 

Houghton, C. E. The Elements of Mechanics of Materials, nmo, *2 00 

Houllevigue, L. The Evolution of the Sciences 8vo, *2 00 

Houstoun, R. A. Studies in Light Production nmo, *2 00 

Hovenden, F. Practical Mathematics for Young Engineers, 

i2mo, *i 00 

Howe, G. Mathematics for the Practical Man nmo, *i 25 



D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 19 

Howorth, J. Repairing and Riveting Glass, China and Earthen- 
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Hubbard, E. The Utilization of Wood-waste 8vo, *2 50 

Hubner, J. Bleaching and Dyeing of Vegetable and Fibrous 

Materials. (Outlines of Industrial Chemistry.) .... *5 00 

Hudson, O. F. Iron and Steel. (Outlines of Industrial 

Chemistry.) 8vo, *2 00 

Humphrey, J. C. W. Metallography of Strain. (Metallurgy 

Series) {In Press.) 

Humphreys, A. C. The Business Features of Engineering 

Practice 8vo, *2 50 

Hunter, A. Bridge Work 8vo {In Press.) 

Hurst, G. H. Handbook of the Theory of Color 8vo, *2 50 

Dictionary of Chemicals and Raw Products 8vo, *3 00 

Lubricating Oils, Fats and Greases 8vo, *4 00 

— Soaps 8vo, *5 00 

Hurst, G. H., and Simmons, W. H. Textile Soaps and Oils, 

8vo, *2 50 

Hurst, H. E., and Lattey, R. T. Text-book of Physics 8vo, *3 00 

Also published in Three Parts : 

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Vol. II. Sound and Light 8vo, *i 25 

Vol. III. Magnetism and Electricity 8vo, *i 50 

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Mining i2mo, 

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Them nmo, 1 25 

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Hutton, W. S. The Works' Manager's Handbook 8vo, 6 00 

Hyde, E. W. Skew Arches. (Science Series No. 15.).. . . i6mo, 50 

Hyde, F. S. Solvents, Oils, Gums and Waxes i2mo, *2 00 

Induction Coils. (Science Series No. 53.) i6mo, o 50 

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Ingle, H. Manual of Agricultural Chemistry 8vo, *3 00 



20 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 

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The Fan nmo, *2 oo 

Ivatts, E. B. Railway Management at Stations 8vo, *2 so 

Jacob, A., and Gould, E. S. On the Designing and Construction 

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Jannettaz, E. Guide to the Determination of Rocks. Trans. 

by G. W. Plympton nmo, 1 50 

Jehl, F. Manufacture of Carbons 8vo, *4 00 

Tennings, A. S. Commercial Paints and Painting. (West- 
minster Series.) 8vo, *2 00 

Jennison, F. H. The Manufacture of Lake Pigments 8vo, *3 00 

Jepson, G. Cams and the Principles of their Construction. . . 8vo, • * 1 50 

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Jervis-Smith, F. J. Dynamometers 8vo, *3 50 

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Johnson, J. H. Arc Lamps. (Installation Manuals Series.) 

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Jones, H. C. Electrical Nature of Matter and Radioactivity 

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Jones, M. W. Testing Raw Materials Used in Paint nmo, *2 00 

Jordan, L. C. Practical Railway Spiral nmo, Leather, *i 50 

Joynson, F. H. Designing and Construction of Machine Gear- 
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Jiiptner, H. F. V. Siderology: The Science of Iron 8vo, *5 00 

Kapp, G. Alternate Current Machinery. (Science Series No. 

g6.) i6mo, 50 



D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 21 

Keim, A. W. Prevention of Dampness in Buildings . = . . 8vo, *2 oo 
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i2mo, half leather, 

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8vo, *2 50 
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Hydrogen Spectrum 8vo, paper, *o 50 

Kemp, J. F. Handbook of Rocks 8vo, *i 50 

Kennedy, A. B. W., and Thurston, R. H. Kinematics of 

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Kennedy, A. B. W., Unwin, W. C, and Idell, F. E. Compressed 

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Kennelly, A. E. Electro-dynamic Machinery 8vo, 1 50 

Kent, W. Strength of Materials. (Science Series No. 41.). i6mo, o 50 

Kershaw, J. B. C. Fuel, Water and Gas Analysis 8vo, *2 50 

Electrometallurgy. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 00 

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Kirkwood, J. P. Filtration of River Waters 4to, 7 50 

Kirschke, A. Gas and Oil Engines i2mo. *x 25 



5 


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9 


00 


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22 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 

Klein, J. F. Design of a High speed Steam-engine 8vo, 

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Knight, R.-Adm. A. M. Modern Seamanship 8ro, 

Half Mor. 
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Knox, J. Physico-chemical Calculations iamo, 

Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen. (Chemical Mono- 
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Koller, T. The Utilization of Waste Products 8vo, 

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Kremann, R. Application of Phytsico Chemical Theory to 
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Trans, hy H. E. Potts , 8vo, 

Kretchmar, K. Yarn and Warp Sizing 8vo, 

Lallier, E„ V. Elementary Manual of the Steam Engine. 

i2rao, 

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Bone Products and Manures 8vo, 

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■ Modern Soaps, Candles, and Glycerin. 8vo, 

Lamprecht, R. Recovery Work After Pit Fires. Trans, by 

C. Salter 8vo, 

Lancaster, M. Electric Cooking, Heating and Cleaning. .8vo, 
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Vol. I. Aerodynamics *6 oo 

Vol. II. Aerodonetics *6 oo 

Larner, E. T. Principles of Alternating Currents nmo, *i 25 

La Rue, B. F. Swing Bridges. (Science Series No. 107.). i6mo, o 50 
Lassar-Cohn, Dr. Modern Scientific Chemistry. Trans, by M. 

M. Pattison Muir nmo, *2 00 

Latimer, L. H., Field, C. J., and Howell, J. W. Incandescent 

Electric Lighting. (Science Series No. 57.) i6mo, 50 

Latta, M. N. Handbook of American Gas-Engineering Practice. 

8vo, *4 50 



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50 


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00 


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00 


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50 


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00 


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D. VAN NOSTRAND COiMPANY's SHOIIT-TITLI: CATALOG 23 

American Producer Gas Practice 4to, *6 oo 

Laws, B. C. Stability and Equilibrium of Floating Bodies.8vo, *3 50 
Lawson, W. R. British Railways, a Financial and Commer- 
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Leask, A. R. Breakdowns at Sea nmo, 2 00 

Refrigerating Machinery nmo, 2 00 

Lecky, S. T. S. " Wrinkles " in Practical Navigation ..... 8vo, *8 00 
Le Doux, M. Ice Making Machines. (Science Series No. 46.) 

i6mo, o 50 
Leeds, C. C. Mechanical Drawing for Trade Schools . oblong, 4to, \ 

High School Edition *i 25 

Machinery Trades Edition *2 00 

Lefe"vre, L. Architectural Pottery. Trans, by H. K. Bird and 

W. M. Binns 4to, *7 50 

Lehner, S. Ink Manufacture. Trans, by A. Morris and H. 

Robson 8vo, *2 50 

Lemstrom, S. Electricity in Agriculture and Horticulture. .8vo, *i 50 

Letts, E. A. Fundamental Problems in Chemistry. . .i2mo, *2 00 
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78.) i6mo, o 50 

Lewes, V. B. Liquid and Gaseous Fuels. (Westminster Series.) 

8vo, *2 00 

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Lieber, B. F. Lieber's Standard Telegraphic Code 8vo, *io 00 

Code. German Edition 8vo, *io 00 

Spanish Edition 8vo, *io 00 

French Edition 8vo, *io 00 

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Lieber, B. F. 100,000,000 Combination Code 8vo, *io 00 

Engineering Code 8vo, *i2 50 

Livermore, V. P., and Williams, J. How to Become a Com- 
petent Motorman i2mo, *i 00 



24 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 

Livingstone, R. Design and Construction of Commutators.8vo, *2 25 

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Lobben, P. Machinists' and Draftsmen's Handbook 8vo, 2 5a 

Lockwood, T. D. Electricity, Magnetism, and Electro-teleg- 
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Electrical Measurement and the Galvanometer. . . . nmo, 75 

Lodge, 0. J. Elementary Mechanics i2mo, 1 50 

Signalling Across Space without Wires 8vo, *2 00 

Loewenstein, L. C, and Crissey, C. P. Centrifugal Pumps. 8vo, *4 50 

Lomax, J. W. Cotton Spinning i2mo, 1 50 

Lord, R. T. Decorative and Fancy Fabrics 8vo, *3 50 

Loring, A. E. A Handbook of the Electromagnetic Telegraph. 

(Science Series No. 39) i6mo, 50 

Low, D. A. Applied Mechanics (Elementary) i6mo, 80 

Lubschez, B. J. Perspective i2mo, *i 50 

Lucke, C. E. Gas Engine Design 8vo, *3 00 

Power Plants: their Design, Efficiency, and Power Costs. 

2 vols (In Preparation.) 

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The set complete *48 00 

Technical Gas Analysis 8vo, *4 00 

Luquer, L. M. Minerals in Rock Sections 8vo, *i 50 



D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 25 

Macaulay, J., and Hall, C. Modern Railway Working. 

Eight vols 4to, 20 oc 

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Macewen, H. A. Food Inspection 8vo, *2 50 

Mackenzie, N. F. Notes on Irrigation Works 8vo, *2 50 

Mackie, J. How to Make a Woolen Mill Pay 8vo, *2 00 

Maguire, Wm. R. Domestic Sanitary Drainage and Plumbing 

8vo, 4 00 

Malcolm, H. W. Submarine Telegraph Cable (In Press.) 

Mallet, A. Compound Engines. Trans, by R. R. Buel. 

(Science Series No. 10.) i6mo, 

Mansfield, A. N. Electro- magnets. (Science Series No. 64) 

h*M i6mo, o 50 

Marks, E. C. R. Construction of Cranes and Lifting Machinery 

i2mo, *i 50 

Construction and Working of Pumps nmo, *i 50 

Manufacture of Iron and Steel Tubes nmo, *2 00 

Mechanical Engineering Materials nmo, *i 00 

Marks, G. C. Hydraulic Power Engineering 8vo, 3 50 

Inventions, Patents and Designs nmo, *i 00 

Marlow, T. G. Drying Machinery and Practice 8vo, *S 00 

Marsh, C. F. Concise Treatise on Reinforced Concrete.. . 8vo, *2 50 

Marsh, C. F. Reinforced Concrete Compression Member 

Diagram 1 50 

Marsh, C. F., and Dunn, W. Manual of Reinforced Concrete 

and Concrete Block Construction i6mo, mor., *2 50 

Marshall, W.J., and Sankey, H. R. Gas Engines. (Westminster 

Series.) 8vo, *2 00 

Martin, G. Triumphs and Wonders of Modern Chemistry. 

8vo, *2 00 

Martin, N. Reinforced Concrete 8vo, *2 50 

Martin, W. D. Hints to Engineers i2mo, *i 00 

Massie, W. W., and Underhill, C. R. Wireless Telegraphy and 

Telephony nmo, *i 00 

Mathot, R. E. Internal Combustion Engines 8vo, *6 00 

Maurice, W. Electric Blasting Apparatus and Explosives ..8vo, *3 50 
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26 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 

Maxwell, J. C. Matter and Motion. (Science Series No. 36.) 

i6mo, o 50 
Maxwell, W. H., and Brown, J. T. Encyclopedia of Municipal 

and Sanitary Engineering 4to, *io 00 

McCullough, E. Practical Surveying 8vo, *2 50 

McCullough, R. S. Mechanical Theory of Heat 8vo, 3 50 

McGibbon, W. C. Indicator Diagrams for Marine Engineers, 

8vo, *3 00 

Marine Engineers' Drawing Book oblong, 4to, *2 00 

Mcintosh, J. G. Technology of Sugar 8vo, *4 50 

■ Industrial Alcohol 8vo, *3 00 

Manufacture of Varnishes and Kindred Industries. 

Three Volumes. 8vo. 

Vol. I. Oil Crushing, Refining and Boiling *3 50 

Vol. II. Varnish Materials and Oil Varnish Making *4 00 

Vol. III. Spirit Varnishes and Materials *4 5° 

McKnight, J. D., and Brown, A. W. Marine Multitubular 

Boilers *i 50 

McMaster, J. B. Bridge and Tunnel Centres. (Science Series 

No. 20.) i6mo, o 50 

McMechen, F. L. Tests for Ores, Minerals and Metals. .. nmo, *i 00 

McPherson, J. A. Water-works Distribution 8vo, 2 50 

Melick, C. W. Dairy Laboratory Guide i2mo, *i 25 

Merck, E. Chemical Reagents: Their Purity and Tests. 

Trans, by H. E. Schenck 8vo, 1 00 

Merivale, J. H. Notes and Formulae for Mining Students, 

i2mo, 1 50 

Merritt, Wm, H. Field Testing for Gold and Silver. i6mo, leather, 1 50 
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Mierzinski, S. Waterproofing of Fabrics. Trans, by A. Morris 

and H. Robson 8vo, *2 50 

Miller, G. A. Determinants. (Science Series No. 105.). .i6mo, 

Milroy, M. E. W. Home Lace -making. nmo, *i 00 

Mitchell, C. A. Mineral and Aerated Waters 8vo, *3 00 

and Prideaux, R. M. Fibres Used in Textile and 

Allied Industries 8vo, *3 00 



D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 27 

Mitchell, C. F. and G. A. Building Construction and Draw- 
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8vo, *2 CO 
Monteverde, R. D. Vest Pocket Glossary of English-Spanish, 

Spanish-English Technical Terms 64mo, leather, *r 00 

Montgomery, J. H. Electric Wiring Specifications i2mo, *i 00 

Moore, E. C. S. New Tables for the Complete Solution of 

Ganguillet and Kutter's Formula 8vo, *5 -oo 

Morecroft, J. H., and Hehre, F. W. Testing Electrical Ma- 
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Morgan, A. P. Wireless Telegraph Construction for Amateurs. 

i2mo, *i 50 

Moses, A. J. The Characters of Crystals 8vo, *2 00 

and Parsons, C. L. Elements of Mineralogy Svo, *2 50 

Moss, S. A. Elements of Gas Engine Design. (Science 

Series.) i6mo, o 50 

The Lay-out of Corliss Valve Gears. (Science Series) . 

i6mo, o 50 

Mulford, A. C. Boundaries and Landmarks 8vo, *i 00 

Mullin, J. P. Modern Moulding and Pattern-making. ... i2mo, 2 50 
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(Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 00 

Murphy, J. G. Practical Mining i6mo, 1 00 

Murphy, W. S. Textile Industries, 8 vols "20 00 

(Sold separately.) each, *3 00 

Murray, J. A. Soils and Manures. (Westminster Series.) .8vo, *2 00 

Naquet, A. Legal Chemistry i2mo, 2 00 

Nasmith, J. The Student's Cotton Spinning 8vo, 3 oo 

— Recent Cotton Mill Construction i2mo, 2 00 

Neave, G. B., and Heilbron, I. M. Identification of Organic 

Compounds i2mo, *i 25 

Neilson, R. M. Aeroplane Patents 8vo, *2 00 

Nerz, F. Searchlights. Trans, by C. Rodgers 8vo, *3 00 



28 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 

Nesbit, A. F. Electricity and Magnetism (In Preparation.) 

Neuberger, H., and Noalhat, H. Technology of Petroleum. 

Trans, by J. G. Mcintosh 8vo, *io oo 

Newall, J. W. Drawing, Sizing and Cutting Bevel-gears. .8vo, i 50 
Newbiging, T. Handbook for Gas Engineers and Managers, 

8vo, *6 50 

Nicol, G. Ship Construction and Calculations 8vo, *4 50 

Nipher, F. E. Theory of Magnetic Measurements nmo, 1 00 

Nisbet, H. Grammar of Textile Design 8vo, *3 00 

Nolan, H. The Telescope. (Science Series No. 51.) i6mo, o 50 

North, H. B. Laboratory Experiments in General Chemistry 

T2ino, *i 00 

Nugent, E. Treatise on Optics i2mo, 1 50 

O'Connor, H. The Gas Engineer's Pocketbook. . . nmo, leather, 3 50 
Ohm, G. S., and Lockwood, T. D. Galvanic Circuit. Trans, by 

William Francis. (Science Series No. 102.). . . . i6mo, 50 

Olsen, J. C. Text book of Quantitative Chemical Analysis . .8vo, *4 00 
Olsson, A. Motor Control, in Turret Turning and Gun Elevating. 

(U. S. Navy Electrical Series, No. 1.) . ...nmo, paper, *o 50 

Ormsby, M. T. M. Surveying nmo, 1 50 

Oudin, M. A. Standard Polyphase Apparatus and Systems . .8vo, *3 00 

Owen, D. Recent Physical Research 8vo, *i 50 

Pakes, W. C. C, and Nankivell, A. T. The Science of Hygiene. 

8vo, *i 75 
Palaz, A. Industrial Photometry. Trans, by G. W. Patterson, 

Jr 8vo, *4 00 

Pamely, C. Colliery Manager's Handbook 8vo, *io 00 

Parker, P. A. M. The Control of Water 8vo, *5 00 

Parr, G. D. A. Electrical Engineering Measuring Instruments. 

8vo, *3 50 
Parry, E. J. Chemistry of Essential Oils and Artificial Per- 
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Vol. I. Chemical and Microscopical Analysis of Food 

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D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 29 

Parry, L. Notes on Alloys 8vo, 3 00 

Metalliferous Wastes 8vo, 2 00 

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Parry, L. A. Risk and Dangers of Various Occupations 8vo, *3 00 

Parshall, H. F., and Hobart, H. M. Armature Windings .... 4to, *7 50 

Electric Railway Engineering 4to, *io 00 

Parsons, S. J. Malleable Cast Iron 8vo, *2 50 

Partington, J. R. Higher Mathematics for Chemical Students 

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Passmore, A. C. Technical Terms Used in Architecture . . .8vo, *3 50 

Patchell, W. H. Electric Power in Mines 8vo, *4 00 

Paterson, G. W. L. Wiring Calculations nmo, *2 00 

Electric Mine Signalling Installations i2mo, *i 50 

Patterson, D. The Color Printing of Carpet Yarns 8vo, *3 50 

Color Matching on Textiles 8vo, *3 00 

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Paulding, C. P. Condensation of Steam in Covered and Bare 

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Transmission of Heat Through Cold-storage Insulation 

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Payne, D. W. Iron Founders' Handbook (In Press.) 

Peddie, R. A. Engineering and Metallurgical Books. .. . nmo, *i 50 

Peirce, B. System of Analytic Mechanics 4to, 10 00 

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Petit, G. White Lead and Zinc White Paints 8 vo, * 1 50 

Petit, R. How to Build an Aeroplane. Trans, by T. O'B. 

Hubbard, and J. H. Ledeboer 8vo, *i 50 

Pettit, Lieut. J. S. Graphic Processes. (Science Series No. 76.) 

i6mo, o 50 
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i6mo, 

Phillips, J. Gold Assaying. 8vo, *2 50 

Dangerous Goods 8vo, 3 50 



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30 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 

Phin, J. Seven Follies of Science i2mo, *i 25 

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Plattner's Manual of Blowpipe Analysis. Eighth Edition, re- 
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Plympton, G.W. The Aneroid Barometer. (Science Series.). i6mo, 

How to become an Engineer. (Science Series No. 100.) 

i6mo, o 50 

Van Nostrand's Table Book. (Science Series No. 104). 

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Pochet, M. L. Steam Injectors. Translated from the French. 

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Lather, 
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Pope, F. G. Organic Chemistry i2mo, 

Pope, F. L. Modern Practice of the Electric Telegraph.. . 8vo, 

Popplewell, W. C. Prevention of Smoke 8vo, 

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Porritt, B. D. The Chemistry of Rubber. (Chemical Mono- 
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Porter, J. R. Helicopter Flying Machines i2mo, 

Potts, H. E. Chemistry of the Rubber Industry. (Outlines of 

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Pratt, K. Boiler Draught nmo, 

High Speed Steam Engines 8vo, 

Pray, T., Jr. Twenty Years with the Indicator 8vo, 

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and Sullivan, E. C. First Book in Qualitative Chemistry 

iamo, *i 50 






50 





50 


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D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 31 

Prideaux, E. B. R. Problems in Physical Chemistry 8vo, *2 oo 

Primrose, G. S. C. Zinc. (Metallurgy Series.) (In Press.) 

Pullen, W. W. F. Application of Graphic Methods to the Design 

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Pynchon, T. R. Introduction to Chemical Physics 8vo, 3 00 

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33-) i6mo, 50 

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Randau, P. Enamels and Enamelling ' 8vo, *4 co 

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and Bamber, E. F. A Mechanical Textbook 8vo, 3 50 

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Power Mains 8vo, *3 00 

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8vo, *2 00 

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Part I. Machine Drafting 8vo, *i 25 

Fart II. Empirical Design (In Preparation.) 



*2 


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*2 


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*3 


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32 D. VAN NOSTKAND COMPANY'S SHORT -TITLE CATALOG 

Raymond, E. B. Alternating Current Engineering i2mo, 

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Redgrove, H. S. Experimental Mensuration i2mo, 

Redwood, B. Petroleum. (Science Series No. 92.) . .. .i6mo, 

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Reed's Engineers' Handbook 8vo, 

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Reynolds, 0., and Idell, F. E. Triple Expansion Engines. 

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Rhodes, H. J. Art of Lithography 8vo, 

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Richards, W. A., and North, H. B. Manual of Cement Testing. *i 50 

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Ripper, W. Course of Instruction in Machine Drawing. . folio, *6 00 



2 


50 


5 


00 


5 


00 





50 


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*2 


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D. VAN NOSTRANT) COMPANY'^ SHOUT-TITLE CATALOG 33 

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i6mo, o 50 
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Robinson, J. B. Architectural Composition 8vo, 

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Rollins, W. Notes on X-Light 8vo, 

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Rose, J. The Pattern-makers' Assistant . 8vo, 

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Rowan, F. J. Practical Physics of the Modern Steam-boiler.8vo, 
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( Science Series No. 27.) i6mo, o 50 

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Series 8vo, *2 00 

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Murray 8vo, *3 50 



*I 


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34 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 
Russell, A. Theory of Electric Cables and Networks ...... 8vo, *3 00 

Sabine, R. History and Progress of the Electric Telegraph. i2rao, 

Sanford, P. G. Nitro-explosives. 8vo, 

Saunders, C. H. Handbook of Practical Mechanics. ..... i6mo, 

leather, 

Sayers, H. M. Brakes for Tram Cars 8vo, 

Scheele, C. W. Chemical Essays. 8vo, 

Scheithauer, W. Shale Oils and Tars 8vo, 

Schellen, H. Magneto-electric and Dynamo -electric Machines 

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Schindler, K. Iron and Steel Construction Works i2mo, 

Schmall, C. N. First Course in Analytic Geometry, Plane and 

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Schmall, C. N., and Schack, S. M. Elements of Plane Geometry 

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Schumann, F. A Manual of Heating and Ventilation. 

i2mo, leather, 1 50 

Schwartz, E. H. L. Causal Geology 8vo, *2 50 

Schweizer, V., Distillation of Resins 8vo, *3 50 

Scott, W. W. Qualitative Chemical Analysis. A Laboratory 

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Searle, G. M. " Sumners' Method." Condensed and Improved. 

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Seaton, A. E. Manual of Marine Engineering 8vo, 8 00 

Seaton, A. E., and Rounthwaite, H. M. Pocket-book of Marine 

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Seeligmann, T., Torrilhon, G. L., and Falconnet, H. India 

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Seidell, A. Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Substances ,8vo, *3 oo 

Seligman, R. Aluminum. (Metallurgy Series) (In Press.) 

Sellew, W. H. Steel Rails 4to, *i2 50 

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Senter, G. Outlines of Physical Chemistry nmo, *i 75 

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Sewall, C. H. Wireless Telegraphy 8vo, *2 00 

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Sewell, T. The Construction of Dynamos 8vo, *3 00 

Sexton, A. H. Fuel and Refractory Materials nmo, *2 50 

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Shaw, S. History of the Staffordshire Potteries 8vo, *2 00 

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Shaw, W. N. Forecasting Weather 8vo, *3 50 

Sheldon, S., and Hausmann, E. Direct Current Machines. . 8vo, *2 50 

Alternating-current Machines 8vo, *2 50 

Electric Traction and Transmission Engineering 8vo, *2 50 

Shields, J. E. Notes on Engineering Construction nmo, 1 50 

Shreve, S. H. Strength of Bridges and Roofs 8vo, 3 50 

Shunk, W. F. The Field Engineer nmo, mor., 2 50 

Simmons, W. H., and Appleton, H. A. Handbook of Soap 

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Simpson, W. Foundations 8vo (In Press.) 

Sinclair, A. Development of the Locomotive Engine. 

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8vo, *2 00 



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Smith, R. H. Principles of Machine Work i2mo. *3 00 

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Smith, W. Chemistry of Hat Manufacturing i2mo, *3 00 

Snell, A. T. Electric Motive Power 8vo, *4 co 

Snow, W. G. Pocketbook of Steam Heating and Ventilation . 

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Sothern, J. W. The Marine Steam Turbine 8vo, *5 00 

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Sothern, J. W., and Sothern, R. M. Elementary Mathematics 

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Southcombe, J. E. Chemistry of the Oil Industries. (Out- 
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Spang, H.W. A Practical Treatise on Lightning Protection. i2mo, 1 00 
Spangenburg, L. Fatigue of Metals. Translated by S. H. 

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Specht, G. J., Hardy, A. S., McMaster, J. B., and Walling. Topo- 
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Sprague, E. H. Hydraulics 121110, 1 25 

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Steadman, F. M. Unit Photography i2mo, 

Stecher, G. E. Cork. Its Origin and Industrial Uses..i2mo, 
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Swoope, C. W. Lessons in Practical Electricity nmo, *2 00 



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38 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 

Tailfer, L. Bleaching Linen and Cotton Yarn and Fabrics. 8vo, *5 oo 
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Masonry in Civil Engineering 8vo, *2 50 

Tenney, E. H. Test Methods for Steam Power Plants. i2mo, *2 50 
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Foundations and Masonry (In Press.) 

Thiess, J. B., and Joy, G. A. Toll Telephone Practice. . . 8vo, *3 50 
Thorn, C, and Jones, W. H. Telegraphic Connections. 

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Thompson, A. B. Oil Fields of Russia 4to, *7 50 

Thompson, S. P. Dynamo Electric Machines. (Science 

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Thomson, G. Modern Sanitary Engineering, House Drain- 
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Thurso, J. W. Modern Turbine Practice 8vo, *4 00 

Tidy, C. Meymott. Treatment of Sewage. (Science Series No. 

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Tillmans, J. Water Purification and Sewage Disposal. Trans. 

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Tinney, W. H. Gold-mining Machinery 8vo, *3 00 

Titherley, A. W. Laboratory Course of Organic Chemistry .8vo, *2 00 

Toch, M. Chemistry and Technology of Mixed Paints 

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Tod, J., and McGibbon, W. C. Marine Engineers' Board of 

Trade Examinations 8vo, *i 50 



*7 


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D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 39 

Todd, J., and Whall, W. B. Practical Seamanship 8vo, 

Tonge, J. Coal. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, 

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Trowbridge, W. P. Turbine Wheels. (Science Series No. 44.) 

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Tucker, J. H. A Manual of Sugar Analysis 8vo, 3 50 

Tunner, P. A. Treatise on Roll-turning. Trans, by J. B. 

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Turnbull, Jr., J., and Robinson, S. W. A Treatise on the 
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Twyford, H. B. Purchasing 8vo, *3 00 

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Van Wagenen, T. F. Manual cf Hydraulic Mining i6mo, 1 00 



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Vosmaer, A. Ozone (In Press.) 

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Warnes, A. R. Coal Tar Distillation 8vo, *2 50 

Warren, F. D. Handbook on Reinforced Concrete nmo, *2 50 

Watkins, A. Photography, (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 00 

Watson, E. P. Small Engines and Boilers i2ino, 1 25 

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